tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-49467532988517282242024-02-07T09:52:26.570-08:00deovellAnonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16657756079639024986noreply@blogger.comBlogger14125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4946753298851728224.post-24173114141543286312012-07-06T11:02:00.000-07:002012-07-06T11:02:04.242-07:00STUDY GEOLOGI LAPANGAN<br />
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">LAPORAN </span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">STUDY GEOLOGI
LAPANGAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">DISUSUN OLEH:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">NAMA :
GISKA DEOVELWAN<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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1103028<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PRODI : Teknik Eksplorasi Produksi Migas<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">LABORATORIUM </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">KEBUMIAN<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">POLITEKNIK
AKAMIGAS PALEMBANG<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">2011/2012<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">KATA PENGANTAR</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Puji
dan syukur saya panjatkan ke hadirat Tuhan Yang Maha Esa, karena berkat rahmat
dan anugrah-Nyalah saya dapat menyelesaikan makalah ini.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Karunia-Nya merupakan
inspirasi yang tak terperi dalam penyelesaian </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">laporan</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sebagai pegangan ilmu dalam </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Laporan Study Geologi Lapangan . K</span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">ami banyak mencari materi yang harus </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">di
pelajari lebih dalam,Oleh karena itu</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">saya selaku penulis banyak melakukan
pencarian data mengenai lebih dalam ilmu </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Geologi
Struktur</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> yang disajikan dalam makalah ini.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> P</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">ada
kesempatan ini, saya selaku penulis mengucapkan terima kasih yang sebesar</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">-</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">besarnya kepada </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pak Budhi Kuswan Susilo,S.T.,M.t.</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">
yang telah banyak </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">memberikan kami materi</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">.
Saya pun berbahagia seandainya mahasiswa Akamigas semakin antusias mengikuti perkembangan ilmu
dan teknologi dalam dunia perminyakan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Saya selaku penulis memohon maaf apabila terdapat kesalahan dalam
bentuk penyajian maupun dal</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">a</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">m
bentuk ilmiah yang saya sajikan</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dan
meminta kepada semua pihak agar memberikan kritik dan sarannya, guna menyempurnakan
</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">laporan</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> ini</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">.
S</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">aya berharap ini dapat ber</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">m</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">anfaat bagi mahasiswa/i
Akamigas khususnya bagi jurusan Teknik Eksplorasi dan Produksi Migas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Palembang, </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">7
juli 2012<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Giska
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">DAFTAR
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">HALAMAN JUDUL<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB I PENDAHULUAN <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"> 1.1
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">3.1 Lokasi
1……………………………………………………………………….. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB IV KESI MPULAN DAN SARAN<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"> 4.2
Saran…………………………………………………………………………….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">LAMPIRAN……………………………………………………………………………….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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PUSTAKA……………………………………………………………………..<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 24pt; line-height: 115%;">BAB I<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 24pt; line-height: 115%;">PENDAHULUAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PENDAHULUAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">I.1 Latar Belakang<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings;">v<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><b>Geologi</b><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span> adalah<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu" title="Ilmu"><span style="color: black;">Ilmu</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>yang mempelajari<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bumi" title="Bumi"><span style="color: black;">bumi</span></a>,
komposisinya, struktur, sifat-sifat fisik, sejarah, dan proses pembentukannya.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Geologiwan
telah membantu dalam menentukan<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Umur_bumi&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Umur bumi (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">umur bumi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>yang diperkirakan sekitar 4.5 miliar
(4.5x10<sup>9</sup>) tahun, dan menentukan bahwa<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kulit_(geologi)&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Kulit (geologi) (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">kulit</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>bumi terpecah menjadi<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lempeng_tektonik" title="Lempeng tektonik"><span style="color: black;">lempeng tektonik</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>yang bergerak di atas<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantel" title="Mantel"><span style="color: black;">mantel</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>yang
setengah cair (<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Astenosfir&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Astenosfir (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">astenosfir</span></a>)
melalui proses yang sering disebut<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tektonik_lempeng" title="Tektonik lempeng"><span style="color: black;">tektonik lempeng</span></a>. Geologiwan membantu menemukan
dan mengatur sumber daya alam yang ada di bumi, seperti<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minyak_bumi" title="Minyak bumi"><span style="color: black;">minyak bumi</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batu_bara" title="Batu bara"><span style="color: black;">batu bara</span></a>, dan juga<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal" title="Metal"><span style="color: black;">metal</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>seperti<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Besi" title="Besi"><span style="color: black;">besi</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tembaga" title="Tembaga"><span style="color: black;">tembaga</span></a>, dan<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium"><span style="color: black;">uranium</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>serta<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral"><span style="color: black;">mineral</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>lainnya
yang memiliki nilai ekonomi, seperti<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asbestos" title="Asbestos"><span style="color: black;">asbestos</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Perlit&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Perlit (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">perlit</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mika" title="Mika"><span style="color: black;">mika</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fosfat" title="Fosfat"><span style="color: black;">fosfat</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeolit" title="Zeolit"><span style="color: black;">zeolit</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanah_liat" title="Tanah liat"><span style="color: black;">tanah liat</span></a>,<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pumis&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Pumis (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">pumis</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuarsa" title="Kuarsa"><span style="color: black;">kuarsa</span></a>, dan<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Silika&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Silika (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black;">silika</span></a>,
dan juga elemen lainnya seperti<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belerang" title="Belerang"><span style="color: black;">belerang</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klorin" title="Klorin"><span style="color: black;">klorin</span></a>, dan<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium" title="Helium"><span style="color: black;">helium</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Petrologi
merupakan ilmu yang mempelajari tentang batuan pembentuk lapisan bumi.
Petrologi terbagi menjadi dua bagian yaitu petrografi dan petrogenesis.
Petrografi mempelajari tentang sifat-sifat batuan baik dari sifat batuan dan
mineralnya. Sedangkan petrogenesis mempelajari tentang terbentuknya batuan atau
genesanya.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">1.1<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Tujuan dan Manfaat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tujuan:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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bisa mengetahui bentuk morfolgi rawa, system sungai dan bantaran banjir<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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bisa mengetahui </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">variasi jenis
batuan</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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bisa mengetahui potensi adanya minyak dan gas serta batubara dan resistansi
batuan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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bisa mengetahui factor endogen dan eksogen<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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bisa mengetahui </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">bentuk
deformasi:strukur geologi</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Manfaat :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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kunjungi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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kunjungi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 26pt; line-height: 115%;">TINJAUAN PUSTAKA<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">HASIL
PEMBENTUKAN MASA PRAKAMBRIUM</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Berdasarkan hasil penanggalan Radiometri menunjukan
bahwa Bumi berumur 4.570 Juta tahun. Proses pembentukan singkapan batuan
penyusun kerak bumi sudah berlangsung sejak masa prakambrium sekitar 4.500
jutah tahun sampai 280 juta tahun lalu yang dimulai pada masa Hadean, berlanju
ke masa Arkeozoikum serta masa Proterozoikum hingga saat ini.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">A.</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Masa Prakambrium</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Masa prakambrium berlangsung sekitar 4.500 juta tahun
lalu dan diperkirakan berakhir sekitar 280 juta tahun lalu. Masa ini
berlangsung dalam tiga tahapan masa yang sangat berperan dalam sejarah
pembentukan bumi yakni masa Hadean, Arkeozoikum dan Proterozoikum.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">a.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Masa Hadean</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Masa ini berlangsung sekitar 4.500 juta tahun sampai
3.800 juta tahun yang lalu. Fase awal pembentukan singkapan batuan penyusun
kerak bumi berlangasung pada masa ini hal ini di tandai dengan ditemukannya
mineral Zircon yang di perkirakan berumur 4.400 juta tahun.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">b.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Masa Arkeozoikum</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Masa ini diperkirakan berumur 3.800 juta tahun hingga
2.500 juta tahun lalu.Masa Arkeozoikum (Arkean) merupakan masa awal pembentukan
batuan kerak bumi yang kemudian berkembang menjadi protokontinen. Batuan masa
ini ditemukan di beberapa bagian dunia yang lazim disebut kraton/perisai benua.
Batuan tertua tercatat berumur kira-kira 3.800.000.000 tahun. Masa ini juga
merupakan awal terbentuknya Indrorfer dan Atmosfer serta awal muncul kehidupan
primitif di dalam samudera berupa mikro-organisma (bakteri dan ganggang). Fosil
tertua yang telah ditemukan adalah fosil Stromatolit dan Cyanobacteria dengan
umur kira-kira 3.500.000.000 tahun.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">c.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Masa Proterozoikum</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Masa Proterozoikum berlangsung sekitar 2.500 juta
tahun sampai 630 juta tahun yang lalu.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Masa Proterozoikum
merupakan awal terbentuknya hidrosfer dan atmosfer. Pada masa ini kehidupan
mulai berkembang dari organisme bersel tunggal menjadi bersel banyak
(enkaryotes dan prokaryotes). Menjelang akhir masa ini organisme lebih
kompleks, jenis invertebrata bertubuh lunak seperti ubur-ubur, cacing dan koral
mulai muncul di laut-laut dangkal, yang bukti-buktinya dijumpai sebagai fosil
sejati pertama.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gambar 1.</span></b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Rentangan Waktu Geologi pada Masa Prakambrium</span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">B</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">.</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Batuan atau Singkapan Batuan Hasil Pembentukan Masa
Prakambrium</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada umumnya batuan atau singkapan batuan hasil
pembentukan dari masa prakmbrium yang tersingkap sampai saat ini dapat kita
jumpai dalam bentuk Craton, Shield, Platform dan Basement.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">a.</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 7pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Craton</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Craton merupakanbagian
yang tua dan stabil dari litosfer kontinen. Seiringsiklus penggabungan dan rifting benua, cratons umumnya ditemukan di lempengtektonik interior yang terdiri
dari batuan dasar kristal kuno, yang
dicakup olehbatuan sedimen yang lebih muda. Craton
memiliki kerak tebal dan litosfermendalam yang memanjang beberapa ratus kilometer ke dalam mantel
bumi.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Cratondapat digambarkan sebagai sebuah perisai</span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">untuk membedakan bagian stabil darikerak benua dari daerah yang lebih aktif dan tidak
stabil secara geologi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">SISTEM SUNGAI<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
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<span style="color: #666666; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
</span>Sistem sungai adalah sekumpulan alur-alur
sungai yang membentuk jaringan yang komplek dan luas dimana air yang berasal
dari permukaan daratan mengalir. Batas geografis dimana seluruh air yang ada di
suatu wilayah disebut sebagai watershed atau drainage basin. Dalam satu
watershed terdapat beberapa alur sungai kecil-kecil yang disebut sebagai
cabang-cabang sungai (tributaries) yang mengalirkan air ke alur sungai yang
lebih besar (principal stream).<o:p></o:p></div>
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Sistem pengaliran sungai dalam suatu watershed dapat
dipisah-pisahkan berdasarkan ukuran alur sungainya dan dikenal sebagai stream
ordering. Order pertama dari pengaliran sungai adalah alur sungai yang ukurannya
paling kecil, sedangkan order kedua adalah alur sungai yang hanya memiliki
cabang-cabang sungai dari order pertama sebagai cabang sungainya. Order ke tiga
adalah alur sungai yang hanya memiliki cabang-cabang sungai dari alur sungai
order pertama dan atau order kedua. Secara umum, sungai yang mempunyai order
yang lebih tinggi akan mempunyai batas pemisah air (watershed) yang lebih luas
dan sudah barang tentu akan membawa air permukaan yang lebih banyak. Topografi
yang tinggi umumnya memiliki batas pemisah air yang memisahkan arah aliran air
runoff ke dalam cekungan yang berbeda didasarkan atas orientasi dari kemiringan
lerengnya. Salah satu yang mengendalikan jumlah air yang berada dalam sungai di
setiap lokasi adalah luas areal permukaan yang terdapat di dalam drainage basin
tersebut dan hal ini merupakan fungsi dari batas pemisah pengaliran.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Sistem sungai mulai dari hulu kemudian kearah hilir hingga
ke laut, yaitu mulai sumbernya di pegunungan kemudian mengalir melalui
anak-anak cabangnya menuju ke saluran-saluran utama (tributary channel) yang
pada akhirnya ke sungai induknya untuk menuju ke arah laut. Sungai ternyata
merupakan media yang mampu mengangkut sejumlah besar bahan yang terbentuk
sebagai akibat proses pelapukan batuan. Banyaknya bahan yang diangkut
ditentukan oleh faktor iklim dan tatanan geologi dari suatu wilayah. Meskipun
bahan-bahan yang diangkut oleh sungai berasal antara lain dari hasil penorehan
yang dilakukan sungai itu sendiri, tetapi ternyata yang jumlahnya paling besar
adalah yang berasal dari hasil proses pelapukan batuan. Proses pelapukan
ternyata menghasilkan sejumlah besar bahan yang siap untuk diangkut baik oleh
sungai maupun oleh cara lain seperti gerak tanah, dan atau air-tanah.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Material-material hasil pelapukan dan erosi diangkut oleh
air sungai dan diendapkan sebagai sedimen. Aktivitas sungai yang mengalir di
daratan akan meng-erosi dan merubah bentuk bentuk bentangalam. Proses-proses
erosi dan pembentukan alur-alur sungai merupakan agen di dalam perubahan bentuk<span class="apple-converted-space"> bentang alam</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt;">PENGERTIAN BATUBARA<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><a href="http://bosstambang.com/" target="_parent" title="batu bara"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">batu bara</span></a>:</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> adalah sisa
tumbuhan dari jaman prasejarah yang berubah bentuk yang awalnya berakumulasi di
rawa dan lahan gambut. Definisi
Batu<b> </b>bara<b> </b>adalah bahan bakar fosil. Batu bara dapat terbakar,
terbentuk dari endapan, <a href="http://bosstambang.com/" target="_parent" title="batuan"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">batuan</span></a> organik yang terutama
terdiri dari karbon, hidrogen dan oksigen. Batu bara terbentuk dari tumbuhan yang telah terkonsolidasi
antara strata batuan lainnya dan diubah oleh kombinasi pengaruh tekanan
dan panas selama jutaan tahun sehingga membentuk lapisan batu bara.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">Penimbunan lanau dan sedimen lainnya, bersama dengan pergeseran kerak bumi
(dikenal sebagai pergeseran tektonik) </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">mengubur
rawa dan gambut yang seringkali sampai ke kedalaman yang sangat dalam. Dengan
penimbunan tersebut, material tumbuhan tersebut terkena suhu dan tekanan
yang tinggi. Suhu dan tekanan yang tinggi tersebut menyebabkan
tumbuhan tersebut mengalami proses perubahan fisika dan kimiawi dan
mengubah tumbuhan tersebut menjadi gambut dan kemudian batu bara.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">Pembentukan</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> <span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">batu bara</span> <span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">dimulai sejak</span> <i><span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">Carboniferous Period</span></i> <span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">(Periode Pembentukan Karbon atau Batu Bara) – dikenal
sebagai </span>zaman batu bara pertama – yang berlangsung antara 360 juta
sampai 290 juta tahun yang lalu. Mutu dari setiap endapan batu bara
ditentukan oleh suhu dan tekanan serta lama waktu pembentukan, yang disebut
sebagai ‘<i>maturitas organik</i>’. Proses awalnya gambut berubah menjadi
lignite (batu bara muda) atau
‘brown <a href="http://bosstambang.com/" target="_parent" title="coal"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">coal</span></a> (batu bara
coklat)' – Ini adalah batu bara dengan jenis maturitas organik
rendah.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">Dibandingkan dengan batu bara jenis lainnya, batu bara muda agak lembut dan
warnanya bervariasi dari hitam pekat sampai </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">kecoklat-coklatan.
Mendapat pengaruh suhu dan tekanan yang terus menerus selama jutaan tahun, batu
bara muda mengalami perubahan yang secara bertahap menambah maturitas
organiknya dan mengubah batu bara
muda menjadi batu bara ‘sub-bitumen’.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">Perubahan kimiawi dan fisika terus berlangsung hingga</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> <span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">batu
bara</span> <span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">menjadi lebih keras dan warnanya lebih hitam dan </span>membentuk
‘<i>bitumen</i>’ atau ‘<i>antrasit</i>’. Dalam kondisi yang tepat, penigkatan
maturitas organik yang semakin tinggi terus berlangsung hingga membentuk
antrasit.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">Jenis-jenis Batu Bara</span></b><span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">Tingkat perubahan yang dialami batu bara, dari gambut sampai menjadi
antrasit – disebut sebagai pengarangan – memiliki </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">hubungan yang penting dan hubungan tersebut disebut
sebagai ‘tingkat mutu’ batu bara.
Batu bara dengan mutu yang rendah, seperti batu bara muda dan sub-bitumen
biasanya lebih lembut dengan materi yang rapuh dan berwarna suram seperti
tanah. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">Baru bara muda</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> <span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">memilih tingkat kelembaban yang tinggi dan kandungan karbon yang
rendah, dan dengan demikian kandungan </span>energinya rendah. Batu <b>bara</b>dengan mutu yang lebih
tinggi umumnya lebih keras dan kuat dan seringkali berwarna hitam cemerlang
seperti kaca. <span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">Batu bara</span> <span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">dengan mutu yang lebih tinggi memiliki kandungan karbon yang lebih
banyak, tingkat kelembaban yang lebih rendah </span>dan menghasilkan
energi yang lebih banyak. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">Antrasit</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> <span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">adalah</span> <b><span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">batu bara</span></b> <span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">dengan mutu yang paling baik dan dengan demikian memiliki
kandungan karbon dan energi yang </span>lebih tinggi serta tingkat
kelembaban yang lebih rendah (lihat diagram pada halaman 4).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dimana Batu Bara Dapat Ditemukan </span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Telah diperkirakan bahwa ada lebih dari 984 milyar
ton cadangan batu bara di
seluruh dunia (lihat definisi). Hal ini berarti ada cadangan batu bara
yang cukup untuk menghidupi kita selama lebih dari 190 tahun (lihat
grafik). Batu<b> </b>bara berada
di seluruh dunia – batu bara dapat ditemukan di setiap daratan di lebih
dari 70 negara, dengan cadangan terbanyak di AS, Rusia, China dan India.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">Sumber Daya</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">Jumlah batu bara yang dapat ditemukan di suatu endapan atau</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> <span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;"><a href="http://bosstambang.com/" target="_parent" title="tambang"><span style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; color: black; text-decoration: none;"><span style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial;">tambang</span></span></a></span><b> <span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">batu bara</span></b><span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">. Ini tidak termasuk kelayakan
penambangan </span>batu bara secara ekonomis. Tidak semua sumber daya batu
bara dapat ditambang dengan menggunakan teknologi yang ada saat ini.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">Cadangan</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">Cadangan</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> <span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">dapat ditentukan dalam hal cadangan yang telah terbukti (atau
terukur) dan cadangan yang diperkirakan (atau yang </span>terindikasi). <b>Cadangan</b> yang
diperkirakan dengan tingkat keyakinan yang lebih rendah daripada cadangan yang
telah terbukti.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">Cadangan yang telah terbukti</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="border-bottom-color: windowtext; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 1pt; border-image: initial; border-left-color: windowtext; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 1pt; border-right-color: windowtext; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 1pt; border-top-color: windowtext; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 1pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">Cadangan-cadangan yang tidak hanya dipertimbangkan untuk sekedar dapat
ditambang namun juga dapat ditambang secara </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">ekonomis.
Hal ini berarti bahwa mereka mempertimbangkan teknologi <a href="http://bosstambang.com/" target="_parent" title="pertambangan"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">pertambangan</span></a> saat ini yang dapat digunakan dan
tingkat ekonomis dari penambangan batu bara.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dengan demikian cadangan-cadangan yang telah terbukti
akan berubah sesuai dengan harga batu bara; jika harga batu bara turun,
maka cadangan yang telah terbukti akan berkurang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><img border="0" height="349" src="file:///C:/Users/Windows7/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image011.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1028" width="528" /></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">B. Pengertian Batuan
Sedimen</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Batuan sedimen adalah
batuan yang terbentuk dari akumulasi material hasil perombakan batuan yang
sudah ada sebelumnya atau hasil aktivitas kimia maupun organisme, yang di
endapkan lapis demi lapis pada permukaan bumi yang kemudian mengalami pembatuan
( Pettijohn, 1975 ).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Batuan sedimen banyak
sekali jenisnya dan tersebar sangat luas dengan ketebalan antara beberapa
centimetersampai beberapa kilometer. Juga ukuran butirnya dari sangat halus
sampai sangat kasar dan beberapa proses yang penting lagi yang termasuk kedalam
batuan sedimen. Disbanding dengan batuan beku, batuan sedimen hanya merupakan
tutupan kecil dari kerak bumi. Batuan sedimen hanya 5% dari seluruh
batuan-batuan yang terdapat dikerak bumi. Dari jumlah 5% ini,batu lempung
adalah 80%, batupasir 5% dan batu gamping kira-kira 80% ( Pettijohn, 1975 )..<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Berdasarkan
ada tidaknya proses transportasi dari batuan sedimen dapat dibedakan menjadi 2
macam :</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1. Batuan Sedimen Klastik; Yaitu batuan sedimen yang
terbentuk berasal dari hancuran batuan lain. Kemudian tertransportasi dan
terdeposisi yang selanjutnya mengalami diagenesa.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2. Batuan Sedimen Non Klastik; Yaitu batuan sedimen
yang tidak mengalami proses transportasi. Pembentukannya adalah kimiawi dan
organis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sifat – sifat utama batuan sedimen :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Adanya bidang perlapisan yaitu struktur sedimen yang
menandakan adanya proses sedimentasi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sifat klastik yang menandakan bahwa butir-butir pernah
lepas, terutama pada golongan
detritus.Sifat jejak adanya bekas-bekas tanda kehidupan (fosil).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Jika bersifat hablur, selalu monomineralik, misalnya :
gypsum, kalsit, dolomite dan rijing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US"><img border="0" height="365" src="file:///C:/Users/Windows7/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image013.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1029" width="450" /></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PENGUKURAN
STRIKE<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Prosedur
untuk mendapatkan data strike adalah dengan melakukan langkah-langkah sebagai berikut
:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Arahkan
lengan pembidik kompas kea rah azimuth (sebelum gunakan right hand rule dalam
penentuan arah azimuth)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Perhatikan
posisi pada kondisi kompas terhadap bidang miring tersebut<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tempelkan
kompas pada bidang miring tersebut (yang menempel adalah sisi east)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">4.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Horisontalkan
level (nivo) mata sapi dengan memasukkan gelembung ke lingkaran di dalam level<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">5.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Setelah
horizontal, buat garis yang menandakan sebagai garis strike (strikeline)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">6.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tekan
pin pengunci<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">7.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Baca
azimuth yang ditunjukkan jarum magnet untuk mendapatkan data strike. Misalnya
125 derajat east.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">8.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Catat
data dengan notasi yang tepat, missal notasi azimuth N125</span><span lang="EN-US" style="position: relative; top: 5.5pt;"><img border="0" height="22" src="file:///C:/Users/Windows7/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image015.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_i1031" width="73" /></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PENGUKURAN DIP<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Prosedur untuk mendapatkan data <i>dip angle</i> menggunakan langkah-langkah
sebagai berikut :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Perhatikan
garis yang dibuat ketika mengukur strike<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Letakkan
kompas tipe brunton pada posisi tegak lurus terhadap garis tersebut. Tempelkan
sisi west.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Perhatikan
pada kondisi kompas terhadap bidang miring tersebut<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">4.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gerakkan
penggerak calorimeter yang berada dibagian bawah kompas tersebut sampai
gelembung tepat ditengah level klinometer<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">5.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Selanjutnya
pembacaan data dip angle dalam derajat. Missal terbaca 65 derajat<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">6.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Catat
melanjutkan data strike sehingga diperoleh, misal N125 serajat E /65 derajat<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Prosedur
untuk mandapatkan data dip direction menggunakan langkah-langkah sebagai
berikut : <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Perhatikan garis yang
dibuat ketika mengukur strik<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tempelkan bagian sisi
belakang kompas sehingga lengan penunjuk menunjuk azimuth. Pada posisi ini
antara garis strike dan lengan pembidik adalah tegak lurus.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Baca
jarum magnet serada pada kwadran yang mana, missal NE, SE, SW atau NW. kita
tentukan misalnya tercatat kea rah SW.Catat data tersebut melanjutkan data
strike dan dip angle</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 26pt; line-height: 115%;">BAB III<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 26pt; line-height: 115%;">PEMBAHASAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="height: 351px; left: 0px; margin-left: 131px; margin-top: 0px; position: absolute; width: 257px; z-index: -3;"><img height="351" src="file:///C:/Users/Windows7/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image016.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1028" width="257" /></span><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 26pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 26pt; line-height: 115%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB III<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PEMBAHASAN</span></b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">3.1 Lokasi 1<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">LP-01
Gerbang KTM<b> (</b>Kota Terpadu Mandiri</span></u></i><i><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> indralaya</span></u></i><i><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">)<o:p></o:p></span></u></i></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk lapangan yang pertama kali yang kami kunjungi
adalah gerbang KTM yang mana pada daerah ini memiliki bentuk morfologi yang
landai di sini rawanya terbatas maka air nya pun terbatas,maka bakteri yang
hidup di daerah ini juga terbatas dan airnya juga <i>asam</i> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Daerah rawa (suam) di sebut juga dengan flood plain dan
PH air di gerbang ini KTM adalah 4.fungsi rawa adalah sebagai reservoir apabila
banjir maka luapan air dapat tertampung.di rawa pun juga dapat terjadi autotono
sedimen (material pembentuk batuan batu bara) pohon-pohon yang dulunya tumbuh
di di daerah tersebut mati dan terendapkan dengan waktu yang lama,terjadilah
proses pematangan dan membentuk batuan batu bara.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Nama
daerah yang sedikit memiliki kandungan oksigen adalah anoksik.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> salah satu sebab mengapa tanah dapat menjadi
asam karena banyaknya kndungan fe2s (pirit)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">3.2 Lokasi 2<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">LP-02
Desa Arahan</span></u></i><i><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></u></i></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Daerah
selanjutnya yang kami kunjungi adalah daerah arahan di sana kami melihat adanya
perlapisan pada batuan yang menyebabkan terjadinya singkapan <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Singkapan adalah: kenampakan
batuan pada lapisan luar bumi yng dapat di lihat dgn mata telanjang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pada
lokasi ini kami melihat perlapisan batuan yang mana lapisannya paling bawah
adalah: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">sand stone <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">lempung<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">clay<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">4.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">humus<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">di
daerah ini pun setiap dari perlapisan memiliki tingkat kekerasan yang
berbeda-beda dan ukuran butirannya pun juga berbeda.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Strikenya:
116<sup>o </sup>east<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dip : 24,8<sup>o </sup>west<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Di
sana juga kmi mencoba mendeterminasikan batu pasir<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> strukturnya
: un stratified<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Teksturnya
: terpilah baik<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Derajat
pembundarannya : sub angular<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Untuk
ukuran butirnya dapat di lihat dari skala went wort 1/16-1/18<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Dan
komposisi mineranya : very fine sand<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pada perlapisan batuan sedimen
kami melihat celah-celah,dan di antara celah-celah tersebut kami menemukan
noodle fe.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Noodle fe bentuknya bulat,dan
cara terjadinya akibat proses genesis dan fe nya atau kandungan besinya saling
mengikat satu sama lain.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Di sni juga kami dapat melihat
bagian tanah yang paling atas,yang berwarna hitam.warna hitam itu bukanlah
akibat dari pembakaran liar,melainkan humus pada tanah.yang mana humus tersebut
sangat penting bagi dunia tambang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Lapisan sediment
Noodle fe<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><img border="0" height="252" src="file:///C:/Users/Windows7/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image022.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_48" width="238" />
<img border="0" height="253" src="file:///C:/Users/Windows7/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image024.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_12" width="258" /><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">3.3 Lokasi 3<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%;">
<i><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">LP-03
Banjar Sari<o:p></o:p></span></u></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Daerah
selanjutnya yang kami datangi adalah daerah banjar sari.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada daerah sebelumnya di daerah
arahan strukturnya di darah arahan mengarah ke daerah banjar sari yang
menunjukkan adanya anticline.Pada daerah ini terdapat singkapan batu bara yang
mana di atas batu bara tidak terdapat batuan sedimen yang tidak jelas sedangkan
di sungai lematang tidak terdapat sama sekali batuan sedimen,karena tererosi
oleh aliran air yang deras.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Pada
bidang in kami juga mengukur Strike :
Nort 165<sup>o</sup> east Dip : 41<sup>o</sup> west<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Batu bara yang berasal dari daerah
ini relatif bersal dari fosil-fosil tumbuhan kami di sini mencoba membela batu
bara dan melihat isi pada batuan tersebut,dan kami menemukan seperti getah
namun sudah dalam bentuk kristal,yang mana getah itu memang berasal dari getah
tumbuhan yang contohnya seperti getah pohon damar.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Batu
bara yang berasal dari daerah ini dapat di katagorikan batu bara yang masih
sangat mudah,yang dapat di lihat dari warnanya yang coklat muda,dan kandungan
kalori nya pun masih sangat rendah dan masih perlu waktu yang lama agar batu
bara tersebut dapat di jual dengan harga yang tinggi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b><i><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Banjar
Sari<o:p></o:p></span></u></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><img border="0" height="313" src="file:///C:/Users/Windows7/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image026.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_49" width="526" />
</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><img border="0" height="331" src="file:///C:/Users/Windows7/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image028.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_50" width="526" /></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-indent: .5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">3.4
Lokasi 4<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-indent: .5in;">
<i><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">LP-04 </span></u></i><i><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Desa </span></u></i><i><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kebur<o:p></o:p></span></u></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Daerah
ke empat yang kami kunjungi pada hari ini adalah desa kebur di desa ini kami
akan melihat sistem sungai yang pada pada desa ini<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">River
site : ( pinggiran sungai ) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Sistem sungainya
berkelok-kelok.tebing ini merupakan gerusan,ada cekungan,dan di tengah-tengah
sungai terdapat seperti sebuah pulau yang di namakan dengan <b><i>point
bar</i></b>.kelokan-kelokan pada sungai akan terus berkembang secara alami.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><img border="0" height="232" src="file:///C:/Users/Windows7/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image030.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_51" width="254" /> <img border="0" height="235" src="file:///C:/Users/Windows7/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image032.jpg" v:shapes="_x0000_i1039" width="254" /><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Pada perubahan ini terdapat dua tenaga yang mampu menjadi
faktor utama yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Eksogen : Tenaga yang berasal dari permukaan bumi<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Endogen : Tenaga yang berasal dari dalam bumi<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">3.5 Lokasi 5<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<i><u><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">LP-05
Desa Tanjung Sirih<o:p></o:p></span></u></i></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 4.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Lokasi yang terakhir yang kamu kunjungi pada study lapangan geologi ini
adalah desa tanjung sirih tidak terasa dari lokasi pertama sampai dengan lokasi
terakhir secara perlahan kami mulai berada di daerah yang morfologinya 176 M di
atas permukaan laut.singkapan yang terdapat di tempat ini bukanlah singkapan
batu bara atau pun singkapan batuab sedimen,melainkan singkapan batuan <i><u>Seal<o:p></o:p></u></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Atuan seal apabila dia
kering,maka batuan ini akan sangat keras,namun ketika batuan ini terkena air
atau terendam maka batuan seal ini secara perlahan akan mulai melebut dan
terlepas seperti lapisan-lapisan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> Dalam dua tahnun singkapan pada batu seal sudah berkurang
dan tidak jelas lagi.tidak hanya seal,di daerah tanjung sirih ini juga banyak
terdapat boulder.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Semakin ke hulu maka boulder
yang akan anda temui maka akan semakin besar.boulder adalah batuan-batuan besar
yang berasal dari pegunungan yang tererosi oleh banjir.cara terjadi boulder pun
ada yaitu <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 38.25pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Andesit<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 38.25pt; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Ø<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Konglomerat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.25pt;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mengapa
air pada sungai musi keruh dan tidak jernih karena di sunya musi bnyak
mengandung sedimen yang lanai<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><img border="0" height="216" src="file:///C:/Users/Windows7/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image034.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_53" width="249" /> <img border="0" height="216" src="file:///C:/Users/Windows7/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image036.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_56" width="249" /><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center; text-indent: .5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB
IV<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center; text-indent: .5in;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">KESIMPULAN
DAN SARAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Morfologi dari lokasi pertama sampai dengan lokasi terakhir mengalami
morfologi yang landai ( naik turun )<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Lokasi terakir di daerah banjar sari merupakan lokasi yang paling
tinggi dengan ketinggian 176 M<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Terdapat singkapan batu bara yang masih mudah yang berada di atas
sungai lematang yang berada di desa banjar sari<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo12; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">4.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dari
morfolgi sungai yang ada pada lapangan yang telah dikunjungi umumnya system
sungainya adalah berkelok<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">SARAN
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo13; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Waktunya terlalu
singkat <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo13; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Mahasiswa yang ikut
terlalu banyak sehingga susah untuk mendengar kan suara dari narasumber<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 355.5pt; text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 26pt; line-height: 115%;">LAMPIRAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 2.0in; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 355.5pt;">
<span style="height: 351px; left: 0px; margin-left: 176px; margin-top: 0px; position: absolute; width: 257px; z-index: -2;"><img height="351" src="file:///C:/Users/Windows7/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1029" width="257" /></span><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 26pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 2.0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<br /></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gerbang KTM</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 26pt; line-height: 115%;">DAFTAR PUSTAKA<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">sumber : deovell.blogspot.com</span></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16657756079639024986noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4946753298851728224.post-10630041380302966432012-07-05T09:27:00.003-07:002012-07-05T09:41:47.881-07:00DETERMINASI BATUAN GANG (KOROK)<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left; text-indent: 0.5in;">
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1.Nama Batuan :
<span lang="EN-US">Batu Granit</span>
profiri <o:p></o:p></div>
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2. Struktur :
Massive<o:p></o:p></div>
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3. Tekstur <o:p></o:p></div>
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a. Derajat kristalisasi : holocrystalin <o:p></o:p></div>
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b. Ukuran kristal :
afaneritik<o:p></o:p></div>
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c. Bentuk kristal :
euhedral<o:p></o:p></div>
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d. ukuran butir :
<span lang="EN-US">inequigranular</span></div>
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4. Komposisi Mineral <o:p></o:p></div>
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a. M primer :
feldspar kalium <o:p></o:p></div>
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b. M skunder :
kwarsa<o:p></o:p></div>
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c. aksesor :
mineral mafi<span lang="EN-US">c</span></div>
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5. Rumus kimia mineral : feldspar(KALSi3O<sub>8</sub>)
kwarsa (<sub> </sub>SiO<sub>2</sub>) Kalium(K) <o:p></o:p></div>
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6. Genesa :
maqma yang membeku di dalam perut bumi<o:p></o:p></div>
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1.Nama Batuan : Granodiorit<o:p></o:p></div>
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2. Struktur : massive<o:p></o:p></div>
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3. Tekstur <o:p></o:p></div>
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a. Derajat kristalisasi : holokristalin<o:p></o:p></div>
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b. Ukuran kristal :
faneritik<o:p></o:p></div>
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c. Bentuk kristal :
euhedral<o:p></o:p></div>
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d. ukuran butir :
equigranular<o:p></o:p></div>
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4. Komposisi Mineral : plagioklas,kwarsa<o:p></o:p></div>
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5. Rumus kimia mineral : (NA,CA) (Si,Al)<o:p></o:p></div>
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6. warna batuan : putih kecoklatan<o:p></o:p></div>
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7. Genesa :
batua beku dalam<o:p></o:p></div>
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1.Nama Batuan :
Sienit<o:p></o:p></div>
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2. Struktur :
massive<o:p></o:p></div>
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3. Tekstur <o:p></o:p></div>
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a. Derajat kristalisasi : holokrisrtalin<o:p></o:p></div>
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b. Ukuran kristal :
faneritik<o:p></o:p></div>
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c. Bentuk kristal :
euhedral<o:p></o:p></div>
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d. ukuran butir :
equigranular<o:p></o:p></div>
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4. Komposisi Mineral : ortoklas<o:p></o:p></div>
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5. Rumus kimia mineral : KLSi308<o:p></o:p></div>
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6. Genesa :batuan
beku dalam<o:p></o:p></div>
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1.Nama Batuan :
Aplit<o:p></o:p></div>
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2. Struktur :
massive<o:p></o:p></div>
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3. Tekstur <o:p></o:p></div>
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a. Derajat kristalisasi : holokristalin<o:p></o:p></div>
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b. Ukuran kristal :
forpiritik<o:p></o:p></div>
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c. Bentuk kristal :
subhedral<o:p></o:p></div>
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d. ukuran butir :
inequigranular<sub><o:p></o:p></sub></div>
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4. Komposisi Mineral : kwarsa,sanidin<o:p></o:p></div>
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5. Rumus kimia mineral : SiO<sub>2</sub><o:p></o:p></div>
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6 warna batuan : abu-abu<o:p></o:p></div>
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7. Genesa :
batuan beku dalam<o:p></o:p></div>
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1.Nama Batuan :
Dunit<o:p></o:p></div>
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2. Struktur :
massive<o:p></o:p></div>
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3. Tekstur <o:p></o:p></div>
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a. Derajat kristalisasi : holokristalin<o:p></o:p></div>
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b. Ukuran kristal :
faneritik<o:p></o:p></div>
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c. Bentuk kristal :
anhedral<o:p></o:p></div>
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d. ukuran butir :
equigranular<o:p></o:p></div>
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4. Komposisi Mineral : piroksen olivin<o:p></o:p></div>
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5. Rumus kimia mineral : <o:p></o:p></div>
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6 warna batuan : coklat
keabuan<o:p></o:p></div>
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7. Genesa :
batuan beku dalam<o:p></o:p></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16657756079639024986noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4946753298851728224.post-64783404867414548082012-07-05T09:07:00.003-07:002012-07-05T09:07:35.289-07:00Garis Kontur<br />
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<span style="background-color: white;"><strong><br /></strong></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Kontur</strong> adalah garis khayal untuk menggambarkan semua titik yang mempunyai ketinggian yang sama di atas atau di bawah permukaan datum tertentu yang disebut permukaan laut rata-rata. Kontur digambarkan dengan interval vertikal yang reguler. <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4946753298851728224" name="more" style="color: #307e01;"></a><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span id="more-142" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></span></span><br />semua titik yang mempunyai ketinggian yang sama di atas atau di bawah permukaan datum tertentu yang disebut permukaan laut rata-rata. Kontur digambarkan dengan interval vertikal yang reguler. Interval kontur adalah jarak vertikal antara 2 (dua) garis ketinggian yang ditentukan berdasarkan skalanya. Besarnya interval kontur sesuai dengan skala peta dan keadaan di muka bumi. Interval kontur selalu dinyatakan secara jelas di bagian bawah tengah di atas skala grafis.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;">Kontur biasanya digambar dalam bentuk garis-garis utuh yang kontinyu (biasanya berwarna cokelat atau oranye). Setiap kontur keempat atau kelima (tergantung pada intervalnya) dibuatlah indeks, dan digambarkan dengan garis yang lebih tebal. Kontur indeks dimaksudkan untuk membantu pembacaan kontur dan menghitung kontur untuk menentukan tinggi. Angka (ketinggian) kontur diletakkan pada bagian kontur yang diputus, dan diurutkan sedemikian rupa agar terbaca searah dengan kemiringan ke arah atas (lebih tinggi).<br />Pada daerah datar yang jarak horisontalnya lebih dari 40 mm sesuai skala peta dibuat garis kontur bantu. Kontur bantu ini sangat berarti terutama jika ada gundukan kecil pada daerah yang datar. Kontur bantu digambar pada peta berupa garis putus-putus untuk membedakan dengan kontur standar.</span></div>
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<a href="http://aanpambudi.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/kontur2.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cc0000; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://aanpambudi.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/kontur2.png?w=300" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #e8e8e7; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border-width: initial; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" /></a></div>
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<em style="background-color: white; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-family: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Kontur indeks dan titik-titik tinggi pada peta rupabumi skala 1:25.000</em></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;"><strong>Bentuk Kontur</strong><br />Bentuk suatu kontur menggambarkan bentuk permukaan lahan yang sebenarnya. Kontur-kontur yang berdekatan menunjukkan kemiringan yang terjal, kontur-kontur yang berjauhan menunjukkan kemiringan yang landai. Jika kontur-kontur itu memiliki jarak satu sama lain secara tetap, maka kemiringannya teratur.<br />Beberapa catatan tentang kontur sebagai berikut:</span></div>
<ol style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-family: Tahoma, Verdana, Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 35px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<li style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: outside; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-left: 10px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 7px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: white;">Kontur adalah kontinyu (bersinambung). Sejauh mana pun kontur berada, tetap akan bertemu kembali di titik awalnya. Perkecualiannya adalah jika kontur masuk ke suatu daerah kemiringan yang curam atau nyaris vertikal, karena ketiadaan ruang untuk menyajikan kontur-kontur secara terpisah pada pandangan horisontal, maka lereng terjal tersebut digambarkan dengan simbol. Selanjutnya, kontur-kontur akan masuk dan keluar dari simbol tersebut.</span></li>
<li style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: outside; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-left: 10px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 7px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: white;">Jika kontur-kontur pada bagian bawah lereng merapat, maka bentuk lereng disebut konveks (cembung), dan memberikan pandangan yang pendek. Jika sebaliknya, yaitu merenggang, maka disebut dengan konkav (cekung), dan memberikan pandangan yang panjang.</span></li>
<li style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: outside; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-left: 10px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 7px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: white;">Jika pada kontur-kontur yang berbentuk meander tetapi tidak terlalu rapat maka permukaan lapangannya merupakan daerah yang undulasi (bergelombang).</span></li>
<li style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: outside; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 8px; margin-left: 10px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 7px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="background-color: white;">Kontur-kontur yang rapat dan tidak teratur menunjukkan lereng yang patah-patah. Kontur-kontur yang halus belokannya juga menunjukkan permukaan yang teratur (tidak patah-patah), kecuali pada peta skala kecil pada umumnya penyajian kontur cenderung halus akibat adanya proses generalisasi yang dimaksudkan untuk menghilangkan detil-detil kecil (minor).</span></li>
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<em style="background-color: white; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-family: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Berbagai kenampakan kontur</em></div>
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<a href="http://aanpambudi.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/profil.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cc0000; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://aanpambudi.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/profil.png?w=300" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #e8e8e7; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border-width: initial; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" /></a></div>
<div style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-family: Tahoma, Verdana, Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;">
<em style="background-color: white; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-family: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Profil permukaan lahan dari potongan garis A-B</em></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;">Kenampakan yang tidak berubah dengan penggambaran kontur adalah bukit dan lembah. Bentuk permukaan lahan tidak berubah cukup berarti meskipun ada bangunan gedung, jalan, pemotongan pepohanan (hutan atau perkebunan). Penafsiran yang benar terhadap bentuk permukaan lahan membutuhkan latihan, praktek dan pengalaman yang memadai di lapangan.</span></div>
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<strong style="background-color: white;">Membuat Potongan Profil</strong></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;">Untuk membuat suatu potongan profil yang utuh antara dua titik A dan B pada peta berkontur, gambarlah sebuah garis lurus pada peta antara titik-titik tersebut. Temukan kontur-kontur rendah dan tinggi yang terpotong oleh garis. Pada gambar 5.4 kontur yang tertinggi adalah 200 meter, dan yang terendah adalah 80 meter.<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span id="more-143" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></span></span><br /><strong>Membuat Potongan Profil</strong></span><br />
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<span style="background-color: white;">Untuk membuat suatu potongan profil yang utuh antara dua titik A dan B pada peta berkontur, gambarlah sebuah garis lurus pada peta antara titik-titik tersebut. Temukan kontur-kontur rendah dan tinggi yang terpotong oleh garis. Pada gambar 5.4 kontur yang tertinggi adalah 200 meter, dan yang terendah adalah 80 meter.<br />Letakkan secarik kertas dengan tepi yang lurus sepanjang garis AB, dan tandai pada titik A dan titik B tersebut juga titik-titik di mana kontur-kontur memotong garis. Berilah label angka tinggi.</span></div>
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<a href="http://aanpambudi.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/cross.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cc0000; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://aanpambudi.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/cross.jpg?w=300" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #e8e8e7; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border-width: initial; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" /></a></div>
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<em style="background-color: white; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-family: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Pemotongan Garis Kontur</em></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;">Dari masing-masing tanda turunkan garis tegak lurus pada kertas. Sejajar dengan pinggiran yang sudah ditandai gambar garis-garis paralel dengan skala yang sesuai untuk menunjukkan angka tinggi dari masing-masing kontur yang dipotong oleh garis AB, yaitu 80 sampai dengan 200 meter. Buat sebuah tanda pada setiap garis vertikal di mana itu memotong skala tinggi sejajar sesuai dengan tingginya pada garis AB. Gabungkan tanda-tanda ini dengan suatu garis kurva yang halus, memungkinkan untuk membentuk lereng permukaan antara kontur-kontur di lembah dan di puncak bukit. Penggunaan kertas milimeter atau grid akan memudahkan penggambaran.</span></div>
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<a href="http://aanpambudi.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/tabelelevasi.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cc0000; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://aanpambudi.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/tabelelevasi.jpg?w=300" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #e8e8e7; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border-width: initial; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" /></a></div>
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<em style="background-color: white; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-family: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Potongan yang menunjukkan intervisibilitas</em></div>
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<strong style="background-color: white;">Menentukan Gradien Jalan Pada Peta</strong></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;">Kemiringan suatu lereng (slope) biasanya didefinisikan sebagai suatu gradien. Gambar di bawah ini menunjukkan sebuah gradien 2 dalam 16, artinya 2 unit vertikal untuk setiap 16 unit pada arah horisontal. Selama kedua unit tersebut sama pada kedua arah, maka tidak ada bedanya apapun satuan panjangnya (meter atau pun kaki). Gradien tersebut biasanya ditulis sebagai 2/16.</span></div>
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<a href="http://aanpambudi.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/sloop.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cc0000; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://aanpambudi.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/sloop.jpg?w=276" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #e8e8e7; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border-width: initial; font-family: inherit; font-style: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" /></a></div>
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<em style="background-color: white; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-family: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Kemiringan lereng atau slope</em></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;">Kadangkala gradien dinyatakan dalam persentase. Untuk mengkonversinya adalah mengalikan perbandingan dengan bilangan 100%, yaitu:</span></div>
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<strong style="background-color: white;">2/16 x 100% = 1,25%</strong></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;">Untuk menentukan gradien suatu titik di jalan pada suatu peta, ukur jarak horisontal antara kontur-kontur yang berurutan pada peta dan nyatakan dalam unit yang sama seperti pada angka interval kontur. Misalnya, jika interval kontur 10 meter dan jarak yang diukur di peta antara dua kontur yang berurutan tersebut adalah 120 meter, maka gradien rata-ratanya antara dua kontur adalah 10/120 = 1/12 atau 1 dalam 12 atau 8,5%.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;">Untuk menentukan gradien yang paling terjal dari suatu jalan, temukan titik di mana dua kontur yang berturutan saling berdekatan, kemudian ukurlah seperti prosedur di atas.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;">Suatu gradien rata-rata dapat diukur dengan cara yang sama terhadap beberapa interval kontur, meskipun hal ini tidak banyak berarti kecuali ada kemiringan lereng yang konstan pada arah yang sama.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white;">Jika dibutuhkan untuk memeriksa bahwa gradien maksimum sepanjang suatu jalan tidak melebihi 1/6, dan interval kontur adalah 10 meter, maka jarak antara kontur-kontur tadi tidak boleh kurang dari 6 x 10 = 60 meter. Tandailah pada sepotong kertas suatu jarak 60 meter pada skala peta, interval kontur dapat diperiksa untuk melihat apakah jarak pada titik mana pun lebih pendek dari jarak yang ditentukan. Jika demikian halnya maka gradiennya lebih terjal dari 1/6.</span></div>
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<a href="http://muftysaid.files.wordpress.com/2009/11/gariskontur.jpg" style="color: #9c4617; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; text-decoration: none;"><br class="Apple-interchange-newline" /><img alt="" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-76" src="http://muftysaid.files.wordpress.com/2009/11/gariskontur.jpg?w=570" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #e8e8e7; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;" title="gariskontur" /></a></div>
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Garis kontur + 25 m, artinya garis kontur ini menghubungkan titik-titik yang mempunyai ketinggian sama + 25 m terhadap referensi tinggi tertentu.</div>
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Garis kontur dapat dibentuk dengan membuat proyeksi tegak garis-garis perpotongan bidang mendatar dengan permukaan bumi ke bidang mendatar peta. Karena peta umumnya dibuat dengan skala tertentu, maka bentuk garis kontur ini juga akan mengalami pengecilan sesuai skala peta.</div>
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Jadi kontur adalah suatu garis yang digambarkan diatas bidang datar melalui titik –titik yang mempunyai ketinggian sama terhadap suatu bidang referensi tertentu. Garis ini merupakan tempat kedudukan titik-titik yang mempunyai ketinggian sama terhadap suatu bidang referensi atau garis khayal yang menghubungkan titik – titik yang mempunyai ketinggian yang sama.Penarikan garis kontur bertujuan untuk memberikan informasi relief ( baik secara relative maupun absolute )</div>
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Sifat-sifat garis kontur adalah :</div>
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1. Satu garis kontur mewakili satu ketinggian tertentu.</div>
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2. Garis kontur berharga lebih rendah mengelilingi garis kontur yang lebih tinggi.</div>
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3. Garis kontur tidak berpotongan dan tidak bercabang.</div>
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4. Interval kontur biasanya 1/2000 kali skala peta.</div>
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5. Rangkaian garis kontur yang rapat menandakan permukaan bumi yang curam/terjal, sebaliknya yang renggang menandakan permukaan bumi yang landai.</div>
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6. Rangkaian garis kontur yang berbentuk huruf “U” menandakan punggungan gunung.</div>
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7. Rangkaian garis kontur yang berbentuk huruf “V” terbalik menandakan suatu lembah/jurang.</div>
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Interval kontur adalah <strong style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">jarak tegak</strong> antara dua garis kontur yang berdekatan. Jadi juga merupakan jarak antara dua bidang mendatar yang berdekatan. Pada suatu peta topografi interval kontur dibuat sama, berbanding terbalik dengan skala peta. Semakin besar skala peta, jadi semakin banyak informasi yang tersajikan, interval kontur semakin kecil.</div>
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Indeks kontur adalah garis kontur yang penyajiannya ditonjolkan setiap kelipatan interval kontur tertentu; mis. Setiap 10 m atau yang lainnya. Rumus untuk menentukan interval kontur pada suatu peta topografi adalah:</div>
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Interval Kontur = 1/2000 x skala peta</div>
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Dengan demikian kontur yang dibuat antara kontur yang satu dengan kontur yang lain yang berdekatan selisihnya 2,5 m. Sedangkan untuk menentukan besaran angka kontur disesuaikan dengan ketinggian yang ada dan diambil angka yang utuh atau bulat, misalnya angka puluhan atau ratusan tergantung dari besarnya interval kontur yang dikehendaki. Misalnya interval kontur 2,5 m atau 5 m atau 25 m dan penyebaran titik ketinggian yang ada 74,35 sampai dengan 253,62 m, maka besarnya angka kontur untuk interval kontur 2,5 m maka besarnya garis kontur yang dibuat adalah : 75 m, 77,50 m, 80 m, 82,5 m, 85m, 87,5 m, 90 m dan seterusnya, sedangkan untuk interval konturnya 5 m, maka besarnya kontur yang dibuat adalah : 75 m, 80 m, 85 m, 90 m , 95 m, 100 m dan seterusnya, sedangkan untuk interval konturnya 25 m, maka besarnya kontur yang dibuat adalah : 75 m, 100 m, 125 m, 150 m, 175 m, 200 m dan seterusnya.</div>
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Cara penarikan kontur dilakukan dengan cara perkiraan (interpolasi) antara besarnya nilai<br />
titik-titik ketinggian yang ada dengan besarnya nilai kontur yang ditarik, artinya antara dua titik ketinggian dapat dilewati beberapa kontur, tetapi dapat juga tidak ada kontur yang melewati dua titik ketinggian atau lebih. Jadi semakin besar perbedaan angka ketinggian antara dua buah titik ketinggian tersebut, maka semakin banyak dan rapat kontur yang melalui kedua titik tersebut, yang berarti daerah tersebut lerengnya terjal, sebaliknya semakin kecil perbedaan angka ketinggian antara dua buah titik ketinggian tersebut, maka semakin sedikit dan jarang kontur yang ada, berarti daerah tersebut lerengnya landai atau datar. Dengan demikian, dari peta kontur tersebut, kita dapat membaca bentuk medan (relief) dari daerah yang digambarkan dari kontur tersebut, apakah daerah tersebut berlereng terjal (berbukit, bergunung), bergelombang, landai atau datar.</div>
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sumber:<a href="http://geoenviron.blogspot.com/2012/04/garis-kontur.html" style="background-color: white; font-family: inherit; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; line-height: 21px;">http://geoenviron.blogspot.com</a></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16657756079639024986noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4946753298851728224.post-65128714890518862462012-06-27T18:04:00.001-07:002012-06-27T20:29:32.921-07:00Ring of fire in word<br />
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific_Ring_of_Fire&action=edit&section=6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Mexico">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Mexico">Mexico</span></h3>
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<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_mexico_volcanoes.gif" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="204" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Map_mexico_volcanoes.gif/320px-Map_mexico_volcanoes.gif" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="320" /></a><br />
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The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Mexican_Volcanic_Belt" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt">Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt</a></div>
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Volcanoes of Mexico are related to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subduction" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Subduction">subduction</a> of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocos_Plate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cocos Plate">Cocos</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivera_Plate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Rivera Plate">Rivera</a> plates to the east, which has produced large <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosive_eruption" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Explosive eruption">explosive eruptions</a>. Most active volcanoes in Mexico occur in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Mexican_Volcanic_Belt" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt">Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt</a>, which extends 900 kilometres (559 mi) from west to east across central-southern Mexico. A few other active volcanoes in northern Mexico are related to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensional_tectonics" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Extensional tectonics">extensional tectonics</a> of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basin_and_Range_Province" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Basin and Range Province">Basin and Range Province</a>, which split the Baja California peninsula from the mainland.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AA_11-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire#cite_note-AA-11" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[12]</a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popocat%C3%A9petl" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Popocatépetl">Popocatépetl</a> lies in the eastern half of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, which is the second highest peak in Mexico after the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pico_de_Orizaba" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pico de Orizaba">Pico de Orizaba</a>. It is one of most active volcanoes in Mexico, having had more than 20 major eruptions since the arrival of the Spanish in 1519. The 1982 eruption of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Chich%C3%B3n" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="El Chichón">El Chichón</a>killed about 2,000 people who lived near the volcano. It created a 1 kilometre (1 mi) wide <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caldera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Caldera">caldera</a> that filled with an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Acid">acidic</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crater_lake" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Crater lake">crater lake</a>. Prior to 2000, this relatively unknown volcano was heavily forested and of no greater height than adjacent non-volcanic peaks.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AA_11-1" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire#cite_note-AA-11" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[12]</a></sup></div>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific_Ring_of_Fire&action=edit&section=7" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="United_States">United States</span></h3>
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<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cascadia_subduction_zone_USGS.png" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="314" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Cascadia_subduction_zone_USGS.png/220px-Cascadia_subduction_zone_USGS.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><br />
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Area of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascadia_subduction_zone" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cascadia subduction zone">Cascadia subduction zone</a>, including the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascade_Volcanoes" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cascade Volcanoes">Cascade Volcanic Arc</a> (red triangles)</div>
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In the western <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="United States">United States</a> lies the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascade_Volcanoes" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cascade Volcanoes">Cascade Volcanic Arc</a>. It includes nearly 20 major volcanoes, among a total of over 4,000 separate volcanic vents including numerous<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovolcano" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Stratovolcano">stratovolcanoes</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shield_volcano" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Shield volcano">shield volcanoes</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lava_dome" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Lava dome">lava domes</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinder_cone" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cinder cone">cinder cones</a>, along with a few isolated examples of rarer volcanic forms such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuya" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Tuya">tuyas</a>. Volcanism in the arc began about 37 million years ago, however, most of the present-day Cascade volcanoes are less than 2,000,000 years old, and the highest peaks are less than 100,000 years old. It formed by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subduction" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Subduction">subduction</a> of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorda_Plate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Gorda Plate">Gorda</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_de_Fuca_Plate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Juan de Fuca Plate">Juan de Fuca</a> plates at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascadia_subduction_zone" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cascadia subduction zone">Cascadia subduction zone</a>. This is a 680 mi (1,090 km) long <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault_(geology)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Fault (geology)">fault</a>, running 50 mi (80 km) off the west-coast of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Northwest" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a> from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_California" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Northern California">northern California</a> to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver_Island" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Vancouver Island">Vancouver Island</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>. The plates move at a relative rate of over 0.4 inches (10 mm) per year at a somewhat oblique angle to the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subduction_zone" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Subduction zone">subduction zone</a>.</div>
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Because of the very large fault area, the Cascadia subduction zone can produce very large earthquakes, magnitude 9.0 or greater, if rupture occurred over its whole area. When the "locked" zone stores energy for an earthquake, the "transition" zone, although somewhat plastic, can rupture. Thermal and deformation studies indicate that the locked zone is fully locked for 60 kilometers (about 40 miles) down-dip from the deformation front. Further down-dip, there is a transition from </div>
<a name='more'></a>fully locked to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aseismic_creep" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Aseismic creep">aseismic sliding</a>.<br />
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<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cascade_eruptions_in_the_last_4000_years.png" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="235" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Cascade_eruptions_in_the_last_4000_years.png/350px-Cascade_eruptions_in_the_last_4000_years.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="350" /></a><br />
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American <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascade_Range" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cascade Range">Cascade Range</a> volcano eruptions in the last 4000 years</div>
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Unlike most subduction zones worldwide, there is no <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_trench" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Oceanic trench">oceanic trench</a> present along the<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_margin" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Continental margin">continental margin</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascadia_subduction_zone" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cascadia subduction zone">Cascadia</a>. Instead, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrane" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Terrane">terranes</a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accretionary_wedge" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Accretionary wedge">accretionary wedge</a> have been uplifted to form a series of coast ranges and exotic mountains. A high rate of sedimentation from the outflow of the three major rivers (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraser_River" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Fraser River">Fraser River</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_River" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Columbia River">Columbia River</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klamath_River" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Klamath River">Klamath River</a>) which cross the Cascade Range contributes to further obscuring the presence of a trench. However, in common with most other subduction zones, the outer margin is slowly being compressed, similar to a giant <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_(device)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Spring (device)">spring</a>. When the stored energy is suddenly released by slippage across the fault at irregular intervals, the Cascadia subduction zone can create very large <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a> such as the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richter_Magnitude_Scale" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Richter Magnitude Scale">magnitude</a> 9<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1700_Cascadia_earthquake" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="1700 Cascadia earthquake">Cascadia earthquake of 1700</a>. Geological evidence indicates that great earthquakes may have occurred at least seven times in the last 3,500 years, suggesting a return time of 400 to 600 years. There is also evidence of accompanying tsunamis with every earthquake, as the prime reason they know of these earthquakes is through "scars" the tsunami left on the coast, and through<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Japan">Japanese</a> records (tsunami waves can travel across the Pacific).</div>
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The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980_eruption_of_Mount_St._Helens" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens">1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens</a> was the most significant to occur in the contiguous 48 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._state" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="U.S. state">U.S. states</a> in recorded history (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_Explosivity_Index" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Volcanic Explosivity Index">VEI</a>= 5, 0.3 cu mi, 1.2 km<sup style="line-height: 1em;">3</sup> of material erupted), exceeding the destructive power and volume of material released by the 1915 eruption of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="California">California</a>'s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lassen_Peak" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Lassen Peak">Lassen Peak</a>. The eruption was preceded by a two-month series of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Steam">steam</a>-venting episodes, caused by an injection of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Magma">magma</a> at shallow depth below the mountain that created a huge bulge and a fracture system on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_St._Helens" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount St. Helens">Mount St. Helens</a>' north slope. An earthquake at 8:32 a.m. on May 18, 1980, caused the entire weakened north face to slide away, suddenly exposing the partly molten, gas- and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Steam">steam</a>-rich <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_(geology)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Rock (geology)">rock</a> in the volcano to lower pressure. The rock responded by exploding into a very hot mix of pulverized <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lava" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Lava">lava</a> and older rock that sped toward <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_Lake_(Washington)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Spirit Lake (Washington)">Spirit Lake</a> so fast that it quickly passed the avalanching north face.</div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> is known for its seismic and volcanic activity, holding the record for the second <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Largest_earthquakes" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Largest earthquakes">largest earthquake</a> in the world the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Friday_Earthquake" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Good Friday Earthquake">Good Friday Earthquake</a>, and having more than 50 volcanoes which have erupted since about 1760.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire#cite_note-12" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[13]</a></sup> Volcanoes can be found not only in the mainland but also in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleutian_Islands" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Aleutian Islands">Aleutian Islands</a>.</div>
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The most recent activity in the American portion of the Ring of Fire occurred in early 2009 when <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Redoubt_(Alaska)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Redoubt (Alaska)">Mount Redoubt</a> in Alaska became active and finally erupted late in the evening of March 22. The eruption ended in May 2009.</div>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific_Ring_of_Fire&action=edit&section=8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Canada">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Canada">Canada</span></h3>
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<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mount_Edziza,_British_Columbia.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0b0080; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.20wmf5/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Edziza" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Edziza">Mount Edziza</a>, a large <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shield_volcano" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Shield volcano">shield volcano</a> in northwestern British Columbia</div>
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See also: <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanism_in_Canada" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Volcanism in Canada">Volcanism in Canada</a></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukon" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Yukon">Yukon</a> are home to a vast region of volcanoes and volcanic activity in the Pacific Ring of Fire.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-SE_13-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire#cite_note-SE-13" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[14]</a></sup> Several mountains that many British Columbians look at every day are <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dormant_volcano" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Dormant volcano">dormant volcanoes</a>. Most of them have erupted during the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleistocene" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Holocene">Holocene</a>. Although none of Canada's volcanoes are currently erupting, several volcanoes, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_field" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Volcanic field">volcanic fields</a> and volcanic centers are considered potentially active.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-IJ_14-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire#cite_note-IJ-14" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[15]</a></sup> There are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_spring" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hot spring">hot springs</a> at some volcanoes while 10 volcanoes in British Columbia appear related to seismic activity since 1975, including: the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silverthrone_Caldera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Silverthrone Caldera">Silverthrone Caldera</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Meager" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Meager">Mount Meager</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wells_Gray-Clearwater_volcanic_field" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field">Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Garibaldi" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Garibaldi">Mount Garibaldi</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Cayley" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Cayley">Mount Cayley</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Rock_(volcano)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Castle Rock (volcano)">Castle Rock</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Volcano_(British_Columbia)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="The Volcano (British Columbia)">The Volcano</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Edziza" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Edziza">Mount Edziza</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoodoo_Mountain" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hoodoo Mountain">Hoodoo Mountain</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crow_Lagoon" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Crow Lagoon">Crow Lagoon</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazko_Cone" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Nazko Cone">Nazko Cone</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-15" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire#cite_note-15" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[16]</a></sup> The volcanoes are grouped into five <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_belt" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Volcanic belt">volcanic belts</a> with different tectonic settings.</div>
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<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MountMeagerPlinthCapricorn.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="165" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/MountMeagerPlinthCapricorn.jpg/220px-MountMeagerPlinthCapricorn.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><br />
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<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MountMeagerPlinthCapricorn.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0b0080; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.20wmf5/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>
The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Meager" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Meager">Mount Meager</a> volcanic complex as seen from the east near Pemberton, BC. Summits left to right are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capricorn_Mountain" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Capricorn Mountain">Capricorn Mountain</a>, Mount Meager, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinth_Peak" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Plinth Peak">Plinth Peak</a></div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 222px;">
<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mount_Cayley.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="147" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Mount_Cayley.jpg/220px-Mount_Cayley.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><br />
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<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mount_Cayley.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0b0080; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.20wmf5/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Cayley" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Cayley">Mount Cayley</a> as seen from its southeast slopes</div>
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The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Cordilleran_Volcanic_Province" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province">Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province</a> (sometimes known as the Stikine Volcanic Belt) is the most active volcanic region in Canada. It formed due to extensional cracking, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault_(geology)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Fault (geology)">faulting</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rift" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Rift">rifting</a> of the North American Plate, as the Pacific Plate grinds and slides past the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Charlotte_Fault" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Queen Charlotte Fault">Queen Charlotte Fault</a>, unlike subduction that produces the volcanoes in Japan, Philippines and Indonesia. The region has <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Canada">Canada</a>'s largest volcanoes,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-SE_13-1" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire#cite_note-SE-13" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[14]</a></sup>much larger than the minor <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovolcano" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Stratovolcano">stratovolcanoes</a> found in the Canadian portion of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garibaldi_Volcanic_Belt" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Garibaldi Volcanic Belt">Cascade Volcanic Arc</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-SE_13-2" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire#cite_note-SE-13" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[14]</a></sup>Several eruptions are known to have occurred within the last 400 years. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Edziza" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Edziza">Mount Edziza</a> is a huge volcanic complex that erupted several times in the past several thousand of years, which has formed several <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinder_cone" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cinder cone">cinder cones</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lava_flows" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Lava flows">lava flows</a>. The complex comprises the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Edziza_Plateau" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Edziza Plateau">Mount Edziza Plateau</a>, a large <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_plateau" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Volcanic plateau">volcanic plateau</a> (65 kilometers long and 20 kilometers wide) made of predominantly basaltic lava flows with four large <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovolcano" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Stratovolcano">stratovolcanoes</a> built on top of the plateau. The associated <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lava_dome" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Lava dome">lava domes</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_cone" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Satellite cone">satellite cones</a> were constructed over the past 7.5 million years during five magmatic cycles beginning with eruption of<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Alkali">alkali</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalt" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Basalt">basalts</a> and ending with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsic" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Felsic">felsic</a> and basaltic eruptions as late as 1,340 years ago. The blocky lava flows still maintain their original forms. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoodoo_Mountain" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hoodoo Mountain">Hoodoo Mountain</a> is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuya" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Tuya">tuya</a> in northwestern British Columbia, which has had several periods of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subglacial_eruption" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Subglacial eruption">subglacial eruptions</a>. The oldest eruptions occurred about 100,000 years ago and the most recent being about 7000 years ago. Hoodoo Mountain is also considered <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_volcano" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Active volcano">active</a> and could erupt in the future. The nearby <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tseax_Cone" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Tseax Cone">Tseax Cone</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Volcano_(British_Columbia)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="The Volcano (British Columbia)">The Volcano</a> produced some of Canada's youngest lava flows, that are about 150 years old.</div>
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Canada's worst known geophysical disaster came from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tseax_Cone" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Tseax Cone">Tseax Cone</a> during the 18th century at the southernmost end of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_belt" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Volcanic belt">volcanic belt</a>. The eruption produced a 22.5 km long lava flow, destroying the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nisga%27a" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Nisga'a">Nisga'a</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Village" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Village">villages</a> and the death of at least 2000 Nisga'a people by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_gas" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Volcanic gas">volcanic gases</a> and poisonous smoke. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nass_River" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Nass River">Nass River</a> valley was inundated by the lava flows and contains abundant tree molds and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lava_tube" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Lava tube">lava tubes</a>. The event happened at the same time with the arrival of the first <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Europe">European</a> explorers to penetrate the uncharted coastal waters of northern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>. Today, the basaltic lava deposits are a draw to tourists and are part of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nisga%27a_Memorial_Lava_Beds_Provincial_Park" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Nisga'a Memorial Lava Beds Provincial Park">Nisga'a Memorial Lava Beds Provincial Park</a>.</div>
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The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garibaldi_Volcanic_Belt" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Garibaldi Volcanic Belt">Garibaldi Volcanic Belt</a> in southwestern British Columbia, is the northern extension of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascade_Volcanoes" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cascade Volcanoes">Cascade Volcanic Arc</a> in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="United States">United States</a> (which includes <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Baker" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Baker">Mount Baker</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_St._Helens" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount St. Helens">Mount St. Helens</a>) and contains the most explosive young volcanoes in Canada.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-SW_16-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire#cite_note-SW-16" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[17]</a></sup> It formed as a result of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subduction" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Subduction">subduction</a> of the<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_de_Fuca_Plate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Juan de Fuca Plate">Juan de Fuca Plate</a> (a remnant of the much larger <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farallon_Plate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Farallon Plate">Farallon Plate</a>) under the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Plate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="North American Plate">North American Plate</a> along the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascadia_subduction_zone" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cascadia subduction zone">Cascadia subduction zone</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-SW_16-1" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire#cite_note-SW-16" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[17]</a></sup> The Garibaldi Volcanic Belt includes the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge_River_Cones" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Bridge River Cones">Bridge River Cones</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Cayley" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Cayley">Mount Cayley</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Fee" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Fee">Mount Fee</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Garibaldi" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Garibaldi">Mount Garibaldi</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Price_(British_Columbia)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Price (British Columbia)">Mount Price</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Meager" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Meager">Mount Meager</a>, the Squamish Volcanic Field and much more smaller volcanoes. The eruption styles in the belt range from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effusive_eruption" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Effusive eruption">effusive</a> to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosive_eruption" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Explosive eruption">explosive</a>, with compositions from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalt" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Basalt">basalt</a> to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyolite" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Rhyolite">rhyolite</a>. Morphologically, centers include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caldera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Caldera">calderas</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinder_cone" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cinder cone">cinder cones</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovolcano" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Stratovolcano">stratovolcanoes</a> and small isolated <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lava" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Lava">lava</a> masses. Due to repeated continental and alpine glaciations, many of the volcanic deposits in the belt reflect complex interactions between <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Magma">magma</a> composition, topography, and changing ice configurations. The most recent major catastrophic eruption in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt was the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2350_BP_eruption_of_Mount_Meager" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="2350 BP eruption of Mount Meager">2350 BP eruption of Mount Meager</a> as well as Canada. It was similar the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980_eruption_of_Mount_St._Helens" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens">1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-SW_16-2" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire#cite_note-SW-16" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[17]</a></sup> sending an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eruption_column" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Eruption column">ash column</a> approximately 20 km high into the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratosphere" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Stratosphere">stratosphere</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-17" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire#cite_note-17" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[18]</a></sup></div>
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<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anahim_Volcanic_Belt-en.svg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="125" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Anahim_Volcanic_Belt-en.svg/350px-Anahim_Volcanic_Belt-en.svg.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="350" /></a><br />
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<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anahim_Volcanic_Belt-en.svg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0b0080; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.20wmf5/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>
The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anahim_Volcanic_Belt" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Anahim Volcanic Belt">Anahim Volcanic Belt</a> centers</div>
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The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilcotin_Group" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Chilcotin Group">Chilcotin Group</a> is a north-south range of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcano" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Volcano">volcanoes</a> in southern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a> running parallel to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garibaldi_Volcanic_Belt" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Garibaldi Volcanic Belt">Garibaldi Volcanic Belt</a>. The majority of the eruptions in this belt happened either 6–10 million years ago (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miocene" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Miocene">Miocene</a>) or 2–3 million years ago (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliocene" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a>), although there have been some slightly more recent eruptions (in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleistocene" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a>).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-DA_18-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire#cite_note-DA-18" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[19]</a></sup> It is thought to have formed as a result of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Back-arc_basin" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Back-arc basin">back-arc extension</a> behind the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascadia_subduction_zone" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cascadia subduction zone">Cascadia subduction zone</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-DA_18-1" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire#cite_note-DA-18" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[19]</a></sup> Volcanoes in this belt include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Noel" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Noel">Mount Noel</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clisbako_Caldera_Complex" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Clisbako Caldera Complex">Clisbako Caldera Complex</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightning_Peak_(British_Columbia)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Lightning Peak (British Columbia)">Lightning Peak</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Dome_Mountain" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Black Dome Mountain">Black Dome Mountain</a> and many lava flows.</div>
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The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anahim_Volcanic_Belt" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Anahim Volcanic Belt">Anahim Volcanic Belt</a> is a line of volcanoes stretching from just north of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver_Island" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Vancouver Island">Vancouver Island</a> to near <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quesnel,_British_Columbia" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Quesnel, British Columbia">Quesnel</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Canada">Canada</a>. These volcanoes were formed 8-1 million years ago and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazko_Cone" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Nazko Cone">Nazko Cone</a> which last erupted only 7,200 years ago.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-SA_19-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire#cite_note-SA-19" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[20]</a></sup>The volcanoes generally get younger as one moves from the coast to the interior. These volcanoes are thought to have formed as a result of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Plate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="North American Plate">North American Plate</a> sliding westward over a small <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotspot_(geology)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hotspot (geology)">hotspot</a>, called the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anahim_hotspot" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Anahim hotspot">Anahim hotspot</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-SA_19-1" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire#cite_note-SA-19" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[20]</a></sup> The hotspot is considered similar to the one feeding the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_Islands" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hawaiian Islands">Hawaiian Islands</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-SA_19-2" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire#cite_note-SA-19" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[20]</a></sup> The belt is defined by three large <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shield_volcano" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Shield volcano">shield volcanoes</a> (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainbow_Range_(Coast_Mountains)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Rainbow Range (Coast Mountains)">Rainbow</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilgachuz_Range" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ilgachuz Range">Ilgachuz</a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itcha_Range" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Itcha Range">Itcha Ranges</a>) and 37 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalt" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Basalt">basalt</a> centers.</div>
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Eruptions of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalt" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Basalt">basaltic</a> to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhyolite" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Rhyolite">rhyolitic</a> volcanoes and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypabyssal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hypabyssal">hypabyssal</a> rocks of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alert_Bay_Volcanic_Belt" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Alert Bay Volcanic Belt">Alert Bay Volcanic Belt</a> in northern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver_Island" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Vancouver Island">Vancouver Island</a> are probably linked with the subducted margin flanked by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_Plate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Explorer Plate">Explorer</a>and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_de_Fuca_Plate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Juan de Fuca Plate">Juan de Fuca</a> plates at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascadia_subduction_zone" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cascadia subduction zone">Cascadia subduction zone</a>. It appears to have been active during the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliocene" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleistocene" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> time. However, no <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> eruptions are known, and volcanic activity in the belt has likely ceased.</div>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific_Ring_of_Fire&action=edit&section=9" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Russia">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Russia">Russia</span></h2>
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<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Avachinsky_Volcano.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="147" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Avachinsky_Volcano.jpg/220px-Avachinsky_Volcano.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><br />
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<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Avachinsky_Volcano.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0b0080; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.20wmf5/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avachinsky" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Avachinsky">Avachinsky</a>, an active volcano on the Kamchatka Peninsula.</div>
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The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamchatka_Peninsula" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Kamchatka Peninsula">Kamchatka Peninsula</a> in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Far_East" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Russian Far East">Russian Far East</a> is one of the most various and active volcanic areas in the world,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-DF_20-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire#cite_note-DF-20" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[21]</a></sup> with an area of 472,300 km². It lies between the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> to the east and the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okhotsk_Sea" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Okhotsk Sea">Okhotsk Sea</a> to the west. Immediately offshore along the Pacific coast of the peninsula runs the 10,500 meter deep <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuril-Kamchatka_Trench" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Kuril-Kamchatka Trench">Kuril-Kamchatka Trench</a>. This is where rapid <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subduction" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Subduction">subduction</a> of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Plate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pacific Plate">Pacific Plate</a> fuels the intense volcanism. Almost all types of volcanic activity are present, from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovolcano" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Stratovolcano">stratovolcanoes</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shield_volcano" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Shield volcano">shield volcanoes</a> to Hawaiian-style fissure eruptions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-DF_20-1" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire#cite_note-DF-20" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[21]</a></sup></div>
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There are over 30 active volcanoes and hundreds of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dormant_volcano" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Dormant volcano">dormant</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct_volcano" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Extinct volcano">extinct</a> volcanoes in two major <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_belt" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Volcanic belt">volcanic belts</a>. The most recent activity takes place in the eastern belt,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-DF_20-2" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire#cite_note-DF-20" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[21]</a></sup> starting in the north at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiveluch" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Shiveluch">Shiveluch</a> volcanic complex, which lies at the junction of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleutian_Islands" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Aleutian Islands">Aleutian</a> and Kamchatka <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_arc" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Volcanic arc">volcanic arcs</a>. Just to the south is the famous <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klyuchi" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Klyuchi">Klyuchi</a> volcanic group, comprising the twin <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_cone" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Volcanic cone">volcanic cones</a> of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kliuchevskoi" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Kliuchevskoi">Kliuchevskoi</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamen_(volcano)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Kamen (volcano)">Kamen</a>, the huge volcanic complexes of<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolbachik" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Tolbachik">Tolbachik</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ushkovsky" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ushkovsky">Ushkovsky</a>, and a number of other large stratovolcanoes. The only active volcano in the central belt is found west of here, the huge remote<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichinsky" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ichinsky">Ichinsky</a>. Farther south, the eastern belt continues to the southern slope of Kamchatka, topped by loads of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovolcano" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Stratovolcano">stratovolcanoes</a>.</div>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific_Ring_of_Fire&action=edit&section=10" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Japan">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Japan">Japan</span></h2>
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See also: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Japanese_nuclear_accidents" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="2011 Japanese nuclear accidents">2011 Japanese nuclear accidents</a></div>
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Ten percent of the world's active <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcano" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Volcano">volcanoes</a> are found in Japan, which lies in a zone of extreme crustal instability. They are formed by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subduction" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Subduction">subduction</a> of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Plate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pacific Plate">Pacific Plate</a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_Sea_Plate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Philippine Sea Plate">Philippine Sea Plate</a>. As many as 1,500 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a> are recorded yearly, and magnitudes of four to six on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richter_magnitude_scale" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Richter magnitude scale">Richter scale</a> are not uncommon. Minor tremors occur almost daily in one part of the country or another, causing slight shaking of buildings. Major earthquakes occur infrequently; the most famous in the twentieth century were: the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Kant%C5%8D_earthquake" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Great Kantō earthquake">Great Kantō earthquake</a> of 1923, in which 130,000 people died; and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Hanshin_earthquake" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Great Hanshin earthquake">Great Hanshin earthquake</a> of 17 January 1995, in which 6,434 people died. On March 11, 2011 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_T%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunami" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami">a magnitude 8.9 Earthquake hit Japan</a>, the country's biggest ever and the fifth largest on record, according to US Geological Survey data.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-21" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire#cite_note-21" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[22]</a></sup> Undersea earthquakes also expose the Japanese coastline to danger from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Tsunami">tsunamis</a>.</div>
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<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FujiSunriseKawaguchiko2025WP.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="165" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/FujiSunriseKawaguchiko2025WP.jpg/220px-FujiSunriseKawaguchiko2025WP.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><br />
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<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FujiSunriseKawaguchiko2025WP.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0b0080; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.20wmf5/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Fuji" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Fuji">Mount Fuji</a> at sunrise from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Kawaguchi" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Lake Kawaguchi">Lake Kawaguchi</a></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Bandai" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Bandai">Mount Bandai</a>, one of Japan's most noted volcanoes, rises above the north shore of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Inawashiro" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Lake Inawashiro">Lake Inawashiro</a>. Mount Bandai is formed of several overlapping<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovolcano" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Stratovolcano">stratovolcanoes</a>, the largest of which is O-Bandai forming a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_volcano" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Complex volcano">complex volcano</a>. O-Bandai volcano was constructed within a horseshoe-shaped <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caldera" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Caldera">caldera</a> that formed about 40,000 years when an earlier volcano collapsed, forming the <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Okinajima_debris_avalanche&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Okinajima debris avalanche (page does not exist)">Okinajima debris avalanche</a>, which traveled to the southwest and was accompanied by a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinian_eruption" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Plinian eruption">plinian eruption</a>. Four major <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phreatic_eruption" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Phreatic eruption">phreatic eruptions</a> have occurred during the past 5,000 years, two of them in historical time, in 806 and 1888. Seen from the south, Bandai presents a conical profile, but much of the north side of the volcano is missing as a result of the collapse of Ko-Bandai volcano during the 1888 eruption, in which a debris avalanche buried several villages and formed several large lakes.</div>
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Nearly a century ago, the north flank of Mount Bandai collapsed during an eruption quite similar to the May 18, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980_eruption_of_Mount_St._Helens" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens">1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens</a>. After a week of seismic activity, a large earthquake on July 15, 1888, was followed by a tremendous noise and a large explosion. Eyewitnesses heard about 15 to 20 additional explosions and observed that the last one was projected almost horizontally to the north.</div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Fuji" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Fuji">Mount Fuji</a> is Japan's highest and most noted volcano. The modern postglacial stratovolcano is constructed above a group of overlapping volcanoes, remnants of which form irregularities on Fuji's profile. Growth of the younger Mount Fuji began with a period of voluminous lava flows from 11,000 to 8,000 years ago, accounting for four-fifths of the volume of the younger Mount Fuji. Minor <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosive_eruption" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Explosive eruption">explosive eruptions</a> dominated activity from 8,000 to 4,500 years ago, with another period of major <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lava" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Lava">lava</a> flows occurring from 4,500 to 3,000 years ago. Subsequently, intermittent major explosive eruptions occurred, with subordinate lava flows and small <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyroclastic_flow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pyroclastic flow">pyroclastic flows</a>. Summit eruptions dominated from 3,000 to 2,000 years ago, after which flank vents were active. The extensive <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalt" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Basalt">basaltic</a> lava flows from the summit and some of the more than 100 flank cones and vents blocked drainages against the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Tertiary">Tertiary</a> <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Misaka_Mountains&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Misaka Mountains (page does not exist)">Misaka Mountains</a> on the north side of the volcano, forming the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuji_Five_Lakes" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Fuji Five Lakes">Fuji Five Lakes</a>. The last eruption of this dominantly basaltic volcano in 1707 ejected <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andesite" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Andesite">andesitic</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pumice" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pumice">pumice</a> and formed a large new <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_crater" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Volcanic crater">crater</a> on the east flank. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Scientist">Scientists</a> are saying that there may be some minor volcanic activity in the next few years.</div>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific_Ring_of_Fire&action=edit&section=11" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Philippines">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Philippines">Philippines</span></h2>
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<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MajorVolcanoesOfThePhilippines-USGS.gif" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="471" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/MajorVolcanoesOfThePhilippines-USGS.gif/220px-MajorVolcanoesOfThePhilippines-USGS.gif" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><br />
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<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MajorVolcanoesOfThePhilippines-USGS.gif" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0b0080; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.20wmf5/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>
Map showing major volcanoes of the<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>.</div>
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The 1991 eruption of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Pinatubo" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Pinatubo">Mount Pinatubo</a> is the world's second largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century. Successful predictions of the onset of the climactic eruption led to the evacuation of tens of thousands of people from the surrounding areas, saving many lives, but as the surrounding areas were severely damaged by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyroclastic_flow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pyroclastic flow">pyroclastic flows</a>, ash deposits, and later, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lahar" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Lahar">lahars</a> caused by rainwater remobilising earlier volcanic deposits, thousands of houses were destroyed.</div>
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<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mayon1984.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="157" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Mayon1984.jpg/220px-Mayon1984.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><br />
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<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mayon1984.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0b0080; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.20wmf5/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayon_Volcano" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mayon Volcano">Mayon Volcano</a> overlooks a pastoral scene approximately five months before the volcano's violent eruption in September 1984.</div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayon_Volcano" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mayon Volcano">Mayon Volcano</a> is the Philippines' most active volcano. The volcano has steep upper slopes that average 35–40 degrees and is capped by a small summit <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_crater" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Volcanic crater">crater</a>. The historical eruptions of this <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalt" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Basalt">basaltic</a>-<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andesite" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Andesite">andesitic</a> volcano dates back to 1616 and ranges from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strombolian_eruption" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Strombolian eruption">Strombolian</a> to basaltic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plinian_eruption" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Plinian eruption">Plinian eruptions</a>. Eruptions occur predominately from the central conduit and have also produced lava flows that travel far down the flanks. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyroclastic_flow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pyroclastic flow">Pyroclastic flows</a>and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudflow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mudflow">mudflows</a> have commonly swept down many of the approximately 40 ravines that radiate from the summit and have often devastated populated lowland areas.</div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taal_Volcano" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Taal Volcano">Taal Volcano</a> has had 33 recorded eruptions since 1572. A devastating eruption occurred in 1911, which claimed more than a thousand lives. The deposits of that eruption consisted of a yellowish, fairly decomposed (non-juvenile) tephra with a high sulfur content. The most recent period of activity lasted from 1965 to 1977, and was characterized by the interaction of magma with the lake water, which produced violent <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phreatic_explosion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Phreatic explosion">phreatic explosions</a>. Although the volcano has been dormant since 1977, it has shown signs of unrest since 1991, with strong seismic activity and ground fracturing events, as well as the formation of small mud geysers on parts of the island.</div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canlaon" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Canlaon">Canlaon</a> is the most active volcano in central Philippines and has erupted 25 times since 1866. Eruptions are typically phreatic explosions of small-to-moderate size that produce minor ashfalls near the volcano. On August 10, 1996, Kanlaon erupted without warning, killing British student Julian Green and Filipinos Noel Tragico and Neil Perez, who were among 24 mountainclimbers who were trapped near the summit.</div>
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sumber:<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire" style="background-color: white;">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire</a></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16657756079639024986noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4946753298851728224.post-45464823059884387472012-06-27T17:58:00.000-07:002012-07-05T08:00:09.110-07:00Ring of fire di Indonesia<br />
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<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blethrow_merapi1.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="113" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Blethrow_merapi1.jpg/220px-Blethrow_merapi1.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><br />
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<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blethrow_merapi1.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #0b0080; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.20wmf5/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Merapi" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Merapi">Mount Merapi</a> in Central Java.</div>
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<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_indonesia_volcanoes.gif" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="A chart with the heading "Major Volcanoes of Indonesia (with eruptions since 1900 A.D.)". Depicted below the heading is an overhead view of a cluster of islands." class="thumbimage" height="278" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Map_indonesia_volcanoes.gif/400px-Map_indonesia_volcanoes.gif" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="400" /></a><br />
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Major volcanoes in Indonesia</div>
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The volcanoes in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> are among the most active of the Pacific Ring of Fire. They are formed due to<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subduction_zone" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Subduction zone">subduction zones</a> of three main active tectonic plates namely the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_Plate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Eurasian Plate">Eurasian Plate</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Plate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pacific Plate">Pacific Plate</a>, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Australian_Plate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Indo-Australian Plate">Indo-Australian Plate</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-22" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire#cite_note-22" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[23]</a></sup> Some of the volcanoes are notable for their eruptions, for instance, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krakatau" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Krakatau">Krakatau</a> for its global effects in 1883, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Toba" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Lake Toba">Lake Toba</a> for its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcano" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Supervolcano">supervolcanic</a> eruption estimated to have occurred 74,000 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Before_Present" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Before Present">BP</a> which was responsible for six years of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_winter" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Volcanic winter">volcanic winter</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Tambora" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Tambora">Mount Tambora</a> for the most violent eruption in recorded history in 1815. The eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815 caused wide spread harvest failures in Northern Europe, the Northeastern United States, and eastern Canada in 1816, which was known as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year_Without_a_Summer" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Year Without a Summer">Year Without a Summer</a>.</div>
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The most active volcanoes are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelud" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Kelud">Kelud</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Merapi" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mount Merapi">Mount Merapi</a> on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Java">Java</a> island which have been responsible for thousands of deaths in the region. Since AD 1000, Kelud has erupted more than 30 times, of which the largest eruption was at scale 5 on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_Explosivity_Index" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Volcanic Explosivity Index">Volcanic Explosivity Index</a>, while Merapi has erupted more than 80 times. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Association_of_Volcanology_and_Chemistry_of_the_Earth%27s_Interior" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior">International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior</a> has named Merapi as a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decade_Volcano" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Decade Volcano">Decade Volcano</a> since 1995 because of its high volcanic activity.</div>
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sumber:<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire" style="background-color: white;">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire</a></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16657756079639024986noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4946753298851728224.post-53817234846626418562012-06-26T03:52:00.000-07:002012-06-26T03:58:12.650-07:00Definisi Mata Bor<br />
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<i><span style="font-size: 13px;">Mata bor merupakan peralatan yang langsung menyentuh formasi, berfungsi untuk menghancurkan dan menembus formasi, dengan cara memberi beban pada mata bor.</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Bagian – bagian penting dari mata bor :</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">shank: merupakan suatu alur (threaded pin), dimasukkan ke dalam box connection pada bottom collar atau bit sub di bawah collar.</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Bit lugs : merupakan peralatan yang berfungsi untuk dudukan poros dan cones.</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Cones : merupakan roda-roda bergigi (gerinda) yang berputar pada mata bor.</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Fluid passageway (jets) : merupakan nozzle yang terdapat pada bottom untuk menyemprotkan lumpur bor langsung ke formasi.</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Jenis-jenis mata bor :</span><span style="font-size: 13px;"><strong>Drag Bit</strong></span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Drag bit ini tidak mempunyai roda-roda yang dapat bergerak dan membor dengan gaya keruk dari blandenya. Pada masa yang lampau, biasanya untuk pemboran permukaan (spud in) dilakukan dengan bit ini, tetapi dewasa ini telah digeser oleh roller- cone bit. Letak jet nozzle pada drag bit ini dirancang agar supaya lumpur yang keluar dari rangkaian pipa bor langsung menyemprot blandernya, hal ini dimaksudkan agar blandenya tetap bersih pada waktu mengebor. Drag bit biasanya digunakan untuk membor formasi-formasi lunak dan plastik (lengket). Blande drag bit dibuat dari macam-macam baja paduan dan pada bagian muka (faced) yang keras umumnya diperkuat dengan tungsten carbide. Persoalan-persoalan yang timbul dalam penggunaan drag bit adalah :</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">lubang bengkok</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">lubang berdiameter kurang dari yang diminta (undergauge)</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">balling (dilapisi padatan) pada pemboran formasi shale</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Lubang bengkok dapat dikurangi dengan pemakaian drill collar, sedang undergauge dapat dikurangi dengan membuat otomatis pada nozzle, dimana bila bitnya rusak, nozzle bertumpu pada lubang dan tertutup secara otomatis, sehingga menaikkan tekanan pompa dipermukaan. Balling dapat dikurangi dengan menggunakan jet nozzle pada balandenya.</span><span style="font-size: 13px;"><strong>Roller-Cone (Rock Bit)</strong></span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Roller-Cone adalah bit yang mempunyai kerucut (cone) yang dapat berputar untuk menghancurkan batuan. Bit ini pertama kali didesain oleh howard R. Houghes (1909) dan hingga sekarang banyak dilakukan untuk pemboran di lapangan minyak. Pada masing-masing terdapat gigi-gigi. Jika diperhatikan secara seksama maka bentuk gigi tersebut untuk setiap bit berbeda. Gigi yang panjang dan jarang letaknya atau sedikit jumlahnya digunakan untuk formasi batuan lunak. Sedang gigi-gigi yang pendek dan rapat letaknya adalah digunakan untuk formasi medium hard atau hard (keras).</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Umumnya jumlah conner pada setiap bit adalah tiga, setiap cones mempunyai sumbu yang berbeda, setiap asnya berpotongan pada satu titik. Panjang jarak gigi-gigi serta pola dari bit dibuat untuk memperoleh laju pemboran yang tertinggi dengan minimum pengaruh balling pada gigi-gigi tersebut.</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Roller cone bit ada dua macam :</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Steel tooth bit (Milled tooth bit)</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Merupakan satu diantara jenis mata bor (bit) yang paling banyak dipakai, dikenal dari gigi-gigi pemotongnya yang dibentuk dengan jalan menggiling/memotong conenya, sehingga menjadi gigi.</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Insert bit (Tungsten carbite bit)</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Gigi-gigi dibuat dari karbit tungsten yang tahan keausan. Biasanya mata bor jenis ini digunakan untuk menembus lapisan yang paling keras atau paling abrasif.</span><span style="font-size: 13px;"><strong>Diamond Bit</strong></span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Pengeboran dengan diamond bit ini sifatnya bukan penggalian (pengerukan) dengan gigi berputar), tetapi diamond bit ini membor batuan berdasarkan penggoresan dari butir-butir intan yang dipasang pada matrix besi (carbite) sehingga menghasilkan laju pemboran yang relatif lambat. Kontak langsung antara intan-intan dengan formasi menyebabkan kerusakan yang cepat karena panas yang ditimbulkan. Pemakaian intan dipertimbangkan karena intan merupakan zat padat yang sampai sekarang dianggap paling keras dan abrasif. Pada prakteknya diamond bit jarang/tidak selalu digunakan di lapangan. Keistimewaan dari diamond bit ini adalah mempunyai umur pemakaian yang relatif panjang (awet) sehingga mengurangi frekuensi roundtrip, dengan demikian biaya pemboran dapat biperkecil.</span></i><br />
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<i><span style="font-size: 13px;"></span><span style="font-size: 26px;">Specialized Down Hole Tools</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Specialized Down-Hole Tools merupakan peralatan khusus yang digunakan sebagai "bottom hole asembly" pada rangkaian pipa bor. Peralatan ini digunakan untuk mengontrol kerja bit selama operasi pemboran berlangsung. Ada tiga jenis Specialized Down-Hole Tools, yaitu :</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Stabilizer</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Rotary reamers</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Shock absorbes (shock subs)</span></i><br />
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<i><span style="font-size: 13px;"></span><span style="font-size: 26px;">Stabilizer</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Stabilizer digunakan sebagai "bottom hole assembly" untuk menjaga kestabilan bit dan drillcollar dalam lubang bor selama berlangsung operasi pemboran. Pada umumnya stabilizer di gunakan untuk tujuan sebagai berikut :</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Untuk menungkatkan penembusan (increased penetration). Stabilizer akan memberikan WOB yang lebih besar pada drillcollar sehingga meningkatkan laju pemboran (penetration rate)</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Untuk memperkecil kemungkinan terjadinya patah lelah (fatique) pada sambungan drillcollar.</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Untuk mencegah terjadinya 'well sticking". Stabilizer dapat menahan permukaan rangkaian pipa bor tetap tidak menyentuh didding lubang bor.</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Ada empat jenis stabilizer, yaitu :</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Non-rotary sleave type stabilizer</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Sleave type rig repairable stabilizer</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Replaceable wear pid rig repairable stabilizer</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Blande stabilizer</span></i><br />
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<i><span style="font-size: 13px;"></span><span style="font-size: 26px;">Rotary Reamers</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Rotary Reamers merupakan peralatan yang digunakan pada operasi pemboran terutama menjaga ukuran lubang bor atau untuk memperbesar ukuran lubang bor.</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Ada tiga jenis rotary reamers :</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">3-point string type</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">6-point bottom hole type</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">3-point bottom hole type</span></i><br />
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<i><span style="font-size: 13px;"></span><span style="font-size: 26px;">Shock absorbers</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Sering juga disebut "shock sub" merupakan peralatan yang diletakkan pada bagian bawah section drillcollar untuk mengurangi getaran dan kejutan yang ditimbulkan oleh "cutting section of the bit" ketika membor batuan keras, patahan dan selang-seling batuan keras lunak, hal ini mengurangi terjadinya kerusakan rangkaian pipa bor dan bahkan rignya sendiri.</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Fungsi utama shock absorbed adalah untuk mengurangi :</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">patah lelah pada sambungan drillcollar dan drillpipe</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">beban kejutan pada bit, melindungi gigi-gigi dan bearing (as), dan</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">kemungkinan kerusakan pada peralatan di permukaan.</span><span style="font-size: 13px;">Hal ini dapat dicapai laju pemboran yang lebih cepat karena WOB dan RPM yang optimum dapat dicapai dan juga dapat memperpanjang umur pahat (bit).</span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 13px;">sumber: </span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://migasnet04windi8009.blogspot.com/2010/01/mata-bor-bit.html">http://migasnet04windi8009.blogspot.com
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Pengeboran lepas pantai bisa dilakukan dengan 3 jenis "kendaraan" atau drilling rig, tergantung pada kedalaman air di tempat tsb:<br />
a.Untuk kedalaman 7 - 15 ft (laut dangkal) biasanya dipakai rig jenis "swamp barge". Caranya yaitu dengan memobilisasi rig ke lokasi sumur, setelah itu rig "ditenggelamkan" dengan cara mengisi ballast tanksnya dengan air. Setelah rig "duduk" di dasar dan "spud can" nya nancep di dasar laut, baru proses pengeboran bisa dimulai. Untuk mencegah rig terdesak arus laut yang kadang2 kuat, biasanya posisi rig distabilkan dulu dengan cara mengikatkan rig pada tiang2 pancang di sekitarnya, sebab apabila tidak stabil dan posisi rig tergeser oleh arus, hal ini bisa bikin problem yang serius, terutama sumur.<br />
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Swap Barge (Tender Barge Rig)<br />
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West Triton (company: SEADRIL) location Vietnam<br />
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b. Untuk kedalaman 15 - 250 ft, biasanya digunakan jack-up rig (biasanya berkaki 3 atau 4, dan ada yang type independent legs dengan spud can di masing2 leg atau ada juga yang non-independent leg dengan type "mat foundation" seperti fondasi telapak). Kaki rig dengan type mat foundation ini biasanya dipakai di daerah2 laut yang mempunyai soft seabed (dasar laut yang empuk sehingga dengan kaki rig type mat amblesnya tidak terlalu dalam).<br />
Rig type jack up bisa digunakan untuk ngebor sumur2 explorasi maupun development (pengembangan). Tahapan yang paling critical adalah pada saat rig move-in mendekati platform, karena rig harus mendekati platform pada jarak tertentu. Kalau kebablasan, rig bisa nabrak plarform dan bisa menyebabkan kerusakan yang significant. Jarak antara rig dan platform sudah ditentukan sesuai design agar rig floor dan derrick yang berada di cantilever deck itu bisa di geser2 (skidding) sehingga mencapai semua well slot yang ada di platform tsb. Satu platform bisa berisi 4, 6, 9, 12 atau lebih well slots tergantung besarnya platform. Untuk approaching platform tsb biasanya rig dipandu oleh 2 atau 3 towing boats, dan di-support dengan 2 atau 4 anchor yang ada di rig. Setelah rig dikunci pada final position, barulah kaki2 rig diturunkan dan diberi "beban awal" atau preload dengan cara mengisi tanki2 dengan air. Rig hull nya sendiri hanya dinaikkan sedikit di atas muka laut sampai kaki2 rig itu tidak ambles lagi pada saat 100% preload. Biasanya setelah 3 jam preload test dan rig stabil, "beban awal" itu dibuang dan rig bisa di jack-up sampai pada ketinggian tertentu untuk drilling mode position di atas platform. Di area BP West Java, leg penetration berkisar antara 25 - 50 ft untuk Arjuna dan Arimbi Field, akan tetapi di Bima Field (daerah Zulu dan sekitar kepulauan Seribu), leg penetrationnya bisa > 100ft karena seabednya yang sangat soft (empuk). Pada kasus deep leg penetration, sering repotnya nanti pada saat rig mau demobilisasi, karena kaki rig itu terperosok sedemikian dalam sehingga it takes time to get them out (biasanya lalu dibantu dengan jetting untuk "membebaskan kaki2 rig tsb).<br />
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<a href="http://blogfajri.files.wordpress.com/2008/10/pengeboran-lepas-pantai-as.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="color: #cc0000; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" src="http://blogfajri.files.wordpress.com/2008/10/pengeboran-lepas-pantai-as.jpg" style="border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-width: 0px; padding-bottom: 4px; padding-left: 4px; padding-right: 4px; padding-top: 4px;" /></a></div>
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<br />
Pic. Jack-Up Rig<br />
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Noble Linda Bossler (NOBLE DRILLING) locaton vietnam<br />
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c. Untuk laut dalam (>250 ft), digunakan drillships (floater) atau semi-submersible.<br />
Drilling rig type floaters biasanya dipakai untuk ngebor sumur2 explorasi karena praktis rig jenis ini gak bisa "nempel" di platform untuk ngebor sumur2 development. Untuk rig jenis ini, biasanya dilengkapi dengan 8 anchor / jangkar, yang tersebar di sekeliling rig. Setelah rig berada di posisi sumur, semua jangkar di-deployed dan di "pretension" sampai dengan 300,000lbs untuk setiap jangkar. Bila jangkar tsb slip pada saat pretension, bisa ditambahkan "piggy back anchor" di belakang jangkar utama. Sama halnya dengan 'preloading' pada type rig jack up, 'pretension' selama mooring operations inipun sangat penting di lakukan pada rig jenis floaters agar nantinya rig benar2 stabil pada saat drilling mode. Selain itu, rig juga dilengkapi dengan "motion compensator" system untuk mengatasi masalah heave, pitch dan roll pada rig jenis floaters, sehingga posisi rig floor relative stabil terhadap lubang sumur at all times. Bahkan di rig2 modern dewasa ini, rig positioning sudah diatur secara computerized agar tetap stabil on position. Setelah semua urusan moving-in ini selesai, barulah Inul, eh...., rig siap untuk ngebor.<br />
Semisubmersibel Rig<br />
Deepwater Millenium (Transocean) at vietnam</div>
<div class="post-body entry-content" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFLYp0ZRjch_GYfsjlgVcgOgfMBVjAf1K8fSMerdIHCuhA7yRlnSNX62BmAVk4hMsODDcXlQ0XN-bauzaA8rARfplA0sOAgrkfNe_zyd6g2ntaJRgiCjuXG3AtPXViMqPnyTXTwoA4GfiU/s1600/dot.gif); background-origin: initial; background-position: 50% 100%; background-repeat: repeat no-repeat; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 1.6em; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 10px;">
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<div class="post-body entry-content" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFLYp0ZRjch_GYfsjlgVcgOgfMBVjAf1K8fSMerdIHCuhA7yRlnSNX62BmAVk4hMsODDcXlQ0XN-bauzaA8rARfplA0sOAgrkfNe_zyd6g2ntaJRgiCjuXG3AtPXViMqPnyTXTwoA4GfiU/s1600/dot.gif); background-origin: initial; background-position: 50% 100%; background-repeat: repeat no-repeat; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 1.6em; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 10px;">
sumber:<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: small; line-height: normal;"><a href="http://victorwelding.blogspot.com/2010/07/pengeboran-lepas-pantai.html">http://victorwelding.blogspot.com
</a></span></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16657756079639024986noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4946753298851728224.post-61119100234822838242012-06-26T03:43:00.001-07:002012-06-26T03:43:11.981-07:00Rig Pengeboran<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;"></span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;"><a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/id/thumb/3/32/Rig2Apexindo.jpg/250px-Rig2Apexindo.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/id/thumb/3/32/Rig2Apexindo.jpg/250px-Rig2Apexindo.jpg" width="240" /></a><b>Rig pengeboran</b> adalah suatu bangunan dengan peralatan untuk melakukan pengeboran ke dalam reservoir bawah tanah untuk memperoleh <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Air">air</a>,<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minyak_bumi" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Minyak bumi">minyak</a>, atau <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_alam" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Gas alam">gas bumi</a>, atau deposit <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Mineral">mineral</a> bawah tanah. Rig pengeboran bisa berada di atas tanah (<i>on shore</i>) atau di atas laut/lepas pantai (<i>off shore</i>) tergantung kebutuhan pemakaianya. Walaupun rig lepas pantai dapat melakukan pengeboran hingga ke dasar laut untuk mencari mineral-mineral, teknologi dan keekonomian tambang bawah laut belum dapat dilakukan secara komersial. Oleh karena itu, istilah "rig" mengacu pada kumpulan peralatan yang digunakan untuk melakukan pengeboran pada permukaan <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerak_Bumi" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Kerak Bumi">kerak Bumi</a> untuk mengambil contoh minyak, air, atau mineral.</span></div>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;">
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.4em;">
Rig pengeboran minyak dan gas bumi dapat digunakan tidak hanya untuk mengidentifikasi sifat geologis dari reservoir tetapi juga untuk membuat lubang yang memungkinkan pengambilan kandungan minyak atau gas bumi dari reservoir tersebut.</div>
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Rig pengeboran dapat berukuran:</div>
<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/18/Monobook-bullet.png); list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Kecil dan mudah dipindahkan, seperti yang digunakan dalam pengeboran eksplorasi mineral</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Besar, mampu melakukan pengeboran hingga ribuan meter ke dalam kerak <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bumi" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Bumi">Bumi</a>. Pompa <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumpur" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Lumpur">lumpur</a> yang besar digunakan untuk melakukan sirkulasi <a class="new" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lumpur_pengeboran&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="Lumpur pengeboran (halaman belum tersedia)">lumpur pengeboran</a> melalui <a class="new" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mata_bor&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="Mata bor (halaman belum tersedia)">mata bor</a> dan <i>casing</i> (selubung), untuk mendinginkan sekaligus mengambil "bagian tanah yang terpotong" selama sumur dibor.</li>
</ul>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katrol" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Katrol">Katrol</a> di rig dapat mengangkat ratusan ton <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipa" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Pipa">pipa</a>. Peralatan lain dapat mendorong <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asam" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Asam">asam</a> atau <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasir" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Pasir">pasir</a> ke dalam reservoir untuk mengambil contoh minyak dan mineral; akomodasi untuk kru yang bisa berjumlah ratusan. Rig lepas pantai dapat beroperasi ratusan hingga ribuan kilometer dari pinggir <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantai" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;" title="Pantai">pantai</a>.</div>
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Pada umumnya RIG pengeboran dapat dibagi menjadi beberapa jenis sesuai daerah</div>
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<a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Boortoren_Tjepoe_TMnr_10027592.jpg/250px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Boortoren_Tjepoe_TMnr_10027592.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Boortoren_Tjepoe_TMnr_10027592.jpg/250px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Boortoren_Tjepoe_TMnr_10027592.jpg" width="246" /></a></div>
<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/18/Monobook-bullet.png); list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">RIG Darat : Untuk pengeboran di darat. Bentuk paling sederhana, terdiri dari menara dan struktur penopang.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Rig Rawa : Biasa dikenal dengan sebuat "Swamp Barge". Untuk kelengkapan alat pengeboran sama dengan RIG darat, hanya saja menara dan sistem pengeboran ditempatkan di atas Ponton. Ponton ini akan duduk di dasar rawa saat operasi pengeboran berlangsung. Biasa beroperasi di perairan dengan kedalaman sekitar 5 M.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Jack Up Rig : Satu unit alat pengeboran dengan kaki yang panjang. Kaki ini dapat naik dan turun untuk menopang struktur utama. RIG jenis ini biasa digunakan pada daerah dengan kedalaman sekitar 100 M atau kurang</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Tender RIG : Sistem pengeboran dipasang pada platform. Tender RIG digunakan untuk membantu operasi pengeboran (pengangkatan pipa, strultur dll). Tender RIG akan menempel di platform saat operasi pengeboran berlangsung.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Semisubmersible RIG : Sesuai namanya, RIG semisub merupakan obyek terapung yang dipasang alat pengeboran. Biasa digunakan untuk mengebor daerah laut dalam (lebih dari 100 M).</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Drill Ship : Semua peralatan untuk pengeboran dipasang pada kapal. Digunakan untuk mengebor laut yang sangat dalam.</li>
</ul>
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<div>
sumber":<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: small; line-height: normal;"><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rig_pengeboran">wikipedia.org</a></span></div>
</span>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16657756079639024986noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4946753298851728224.post-79513601413519396742012-06-26T03:34:00.002-07:002012-06-26T03:34:31.671-07:00Macam-macam mata bor<br />
<h3 class="post-title entry-title" itemprop="name" style="font-family: cursive; font-size: 13px; font: normal normal normal 24px/normal 'Coming Soon'; line-height: 18px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; position: relative;">
Mata Bor (Olje Museum 8)</h3>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgk6SPhq_Qkvv0zq4BANr6s9MgjfsxfO4qQQr0JFym-Rc6wfBfzIv4ja8FsuR89T-x5JBP_iXxQvXL4xNfkeZQEDLLXhPKop_tJNKiaAv-gyx-RpsiT-kGbtX_d0yHItYkeefSVVfNQqwY/s1600/2011-05-22+Olje+Museum+Stavanger1.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: black;"><img alt="" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgk6SPhq_Qkvv0zq4BANr6s9MgjfsxfO4qQQr0JFym-Rc6wfBfzIv4ja8FsuR89T-x5JBP_iXxQvXL4xNfkeZQEDLLXhPKop_tJNKiaAv-gyx-RpsiT-kGbtX_d0yHItYkeefSVVfNQqwY/s400/2011-05-22+Olje+Museum+Stavanger1.jpg" style="-webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.0976563) 0px 0px 0px; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; border-width: initial; box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.0976563) 0px 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; position: relative;" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 11px; text-align: center;">Jenis-jenis mata bor minyak<br />
yang disimpan di Petroleum Museum Stavanger</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 1.5;">Ternyata membor minyak membutuhkan macam-macam mata bor. Ini adalah contoh-contoh yang terpajang di Olje Museum Stavanger.</span><br />
<br />
<ol style="line-height: 1.5; text-align: left;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.25em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;">Produksi Hycalog, 31 cm, untuk di gunakan di tanah yang empuk hingga ”medium”.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.25em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;">Produksi Security, 31 cm, Type S84F untuk digunakan di tanah yang empuk hingga medium kekerasannya, seperti batu tanah liat.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.25em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;">Produksi Hughes Christensen, Type S279P, besar 24 cm, biasa digunakan untuk lahan yang keras seperti kapur ”sandstone” dan tanah yang bersifat abrasive.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.25em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;">Produksi Hughes Christensen, ATX447 HA, besar 24 cm, biasa digunakan untuk tanah yang empuk dan medium. Ini diangap mata bor yang memecahkan rekor dunia dengan menembus kedalaman 2736 meter ketika digunakan oleh Hydro (perusahaan minyak Norwegia), dengan kecepatan menembus tanah 47,5 meter per jam.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.25em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;">Produksi: Hughes Tool Company, 22 cm, Type J1, dengan dua mata bor. Digunakan untuk formasi tanah yang empuk.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.25em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;">Produksi Hughes Christensen, ukuran 22 cm, Type ATJ 1, Digunakan untuk lahan yang empuk dan bisa di bor dengan cepat.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.25em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;">Produksi Hughes Christensen, ukuran 22 cm Type S225. Mata bor berlapis intan sintetis yang tahan temperatur tinggi. Digunakan untuk membor permukaan tanah yang keras.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.25em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;">Produksi Hughes Tool Company, ukuran 22 cm, Type RG dengan mata untuk karbit. Digunakan untuk permukaan tanah yang medium hingga keras.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.25em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;">Produksi Hughes Christensen, bermata bor intan, ukuran 15 cm, digunakan untuk ”core samplings in reservoir”.</li>
</ol>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="-webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.496094) 1px 1px 5px; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.496094) 1px 1px 5px; line-height: 1.5; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-bottom: 8px; padding-left: 8px; padding-right: 8px; padding-top: 8px; position: relative; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhptes29P5ENXiHym4_TbD1q6aHgOv2rEhj3LRo5D4oDp4eiBMfrPWD1emQtdsYN6qavvCPxLoDVaPKdLKEv-VhM1y8KS_EjInZv7pLkbJFjQFU5Dumkn-mnyKOV5aF7o26x07EM0wq6K8/s1600/2011-05-22+Olje+Museum+Stavanger.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-decoration: none;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: black;"><img alt="" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhptes29P5ENXiHym4_TbD1q6aHgOv2rEhj3LRo5D4oDp4eiBMfrPWD1emQtdsYN6qavvCPxLoDVaPKdLKEv-VhM1y8KS_EjInZv7pLkbJFjQFU5Dumkn-mnyKOV5aF7o26x07EM0wq6K8/s400/2011-05-22+Olje+Museum+Stavanger.jpg" style="-webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.0976563) 0px 0px 0px; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; border-width: initial; box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.0976563) 0px 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; position: relative;" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 11px; text-align: center;">Jenis-jenis mata bor minyak di Petroleum Museum<br />
Stavanger</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<br />
<ul style="line-height: 1.4; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: disc; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 2.5em; padding-right: 2.5em; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left;">
<li style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0.25em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;">10. Produksi Hughes Christensen, ukuran 61 cm, dengan mata bor bergigi untuk karbit, Type GTXC3MO3D.</li>
<li style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0.25em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;">11. Produksi Hughes Tool Company, Type OSC-1GJ ukuran 66 cm, bermata bor baja.</li>
<li style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0.25em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;">12. Produksi Hughes Christensen, ukuran 22 cm, Type ATJ 8bermata bor baja dan digunakan untuk menggali lahan yang medium hingga keras.</li>
<li style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; margin-bottom: 0.25em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-indent: 0px;">13. Produksi Hughes Tool Company, type R1, ukuran 37 cm, digunakan untuk membor lahan yang empuk.</li>
</ul>
<div>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 19px;"><br /></span></div>
<div>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 19px;">sumber: </span><a href="http://jazmuseumworld.blogspot.com/2011/07/mata-bor-olje-museum-8.html">Museum Experiences</a></div>
</div>
</div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16657756079639024986noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4946753298851728224.post-78170037455518163852012-06-26T03:31:00.000-07:002012-06-26T03:31:03.591-07:00Deformasi Batuan<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 22.5pt; margin-bottom: 16.5pt; mso-outline-level: 1; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 27px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial, 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;"></span></span></span></div>
<h1 class="post-title" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; clear: both; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', 'Myriad Pro', Tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 27px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 30px; margin-bottom: 22px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><br /></span></h1>
<div class="date" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; height: 80px; left: -123px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; position: absolute; text-align: center; top: -7px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 75px;">
<div class="bg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://s0.wp.com/wp-content/themes/pub/choco/colors/default/images/date.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 0px 0px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; height: 62px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 18px; text-shadow: rgb(34, 34, 34) 0px 1px 1px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 70px;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><span class="day" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #feefcc; display: block; font-size: 26px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-transform: uppercase; vertical-align: baseline;">06</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #feefcc; display: block; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-transform: uppercase; vertical-align: baseline;">AUG</span></span></div>
</div>
<div class="entry" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Kali ini, saya akan memberikan informasi kepada temanteman seputar apa sih deformasi batuan itu. Bagi temen-temen yang ingin tahu, ayo masuk kesini !!!</span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><span id="more-34" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></span>Dua abad lalu, jarak antara sejumlah monumen-monumen survei di Yunani diukur dengan sangat akurat. Pada tahun 1988 team ilmiah mengukur kembali jarak-jarak tersebut, dan menemukan bahwa Yunani menjadi lebih panjang satu meter. Mereka juga mendapatkan bahwa Yunani sedang terpelintir (twisted), di bagian ujung sebelah Selatan, Pelponnesus, bergerak ke arah Baratdaya. Penyebab dari pemanjangan dan pelintiran ini adalah tektonik lempeng. Afrika bergerak ke utara, perlahan-lahan mendorong sebagian lantai dasar laut Mediteran ke bawah Yunani.</span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Gaya tektonik secara kontinu akan menekan, menarik, melengkungkan dan mematahkan batuan di litosfer. Sumber energi tektonik berasal dari energi panas bumi yang diubah menjadi energi mekanik oleh arus konveksi. Aliran konveksi tersebut sangat besar, batuan panas di dalam mesosfir dan astenosfir perlahan-lahan menyeret dan melengkungan litosfir secara kontinu yang akhirnya menyebabkan batuan terdeformasi. Deformasi batuan litosfir terlalu lambat dan terlalu dalam untuk diamati. Contohnya adalah lempeng India-Australia yang mendesak lempeng Eurasia, tercermin pada sesar Sumatera. Gerakannya tidak teramati tetapi hasilnya berupa Bukit-barisan dan seringnya terjadi gempa bumi di daerah ini.</span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 18px;"></span></span></div>
<div class="date" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; height: 80px; left: -123px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; position: absolute; text-align: center; top: -7px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 75px;">
<div class="bg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://s0.wp.com/wp-content/themes/pub/choco/colors/default/images/date.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 0px 0px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; height: 62px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 18px; text-shadow: rgb(34, 34, 34) 0px 1px 1px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 70px;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><span class="day" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #feefcc; display: block; font-size: 26px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-transform: uppercase; vertical-align: baseline;">06</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #feefcc; display: block; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-transform: uppercase; vertical-align: baseline;">AU<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 20px; text-transform: none;">Untuk mengetahui bagaimana dan faktor-faktor apa yang mempengaruhi batuan terdeformasi, terpuntir, terlipat dan atau terpatahkan, yang berlangsung jauh di bawah kerak bumi, dapat dipelajari dalam laboratorium. Percobaan dilakukan terhadap contoh batuan yang dibentuk sebagai silinder atau kubus.</span></span></span></div>
</div>
<div class="entry" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Tegasan (Stress) dan Regangan (strain)</strong></span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Pengaruh tegasan terhadap batuan tergantung pada cara bekerja atau sifat tegasannya dan sifat fisik batuan yang terkena tegasan. Ada dua bentuk stress :</span></div>
<ol style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 22px; margin-left: 25px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<li style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Stress uniform</strong> akan menekan dengan besaran yang sama dari segala arah. Dalam batuan dinamakan<strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">confining stress</strong> karena setiap tubuh batuan dalam litosfir dibatasi oleh batuan lain di sekitarnya dan ditekan secara merata (uniform) oleh berat batuan di atasnya.<strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"></strong></span></li>
<li style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Stress diferensial</strong> menekan tidak dari semua jurusan dengan besaran yang sama. Dalam sistem ortogonal dapat diuraikan menjadi stress utama, yang maksimum, yang menengah, dan yang paling kecil besarannya. Biasanya differential stress ini yang mendeformasi batuan dan dikenal 3 jenis diferrential stress, yaitu tensional stress, compressional stress dan shear stress.</span></li>
</ol>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><a href="http://primaedu.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/macam-stress2.png" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cd4517; cursor: pointer; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" class="aligncenter size-medium wp-image-18" height="238" src="http://primaedu.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/macam-stress2.png?w=300&h=238" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 10px; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 10px; border-right-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 10px; border-style: initial; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 10px; border-width: initial; display: block; margin-bottom: 12px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; max-width: 621px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="macam stress" width="300" /></a></span></div>
<div align="center" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Gambar 1. Deformasi batuan akibat berbagai bentuk stress. Panah menunjukkan arah tegasan utama (maximum stress).</span></div>
<ol style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 22px; margin-left: 25px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<li style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Tensional stress</strong>, arahnya berlawanan pada satu bidang, dan sifatnya menarik (stretch) batuan.</span></li>
<li style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Compressional stress</strong>, arahnya berhadapan, memampatkan atau menekan batuan.</span></li>
<li style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Shear stress</strong>, bekerja berlawanan arah, tidak dalam satu bidang, yang menyebabkan terjadinya pergeseran dan translasi.</span></li>
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<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Uniform atau differential stress yang menyebabkan terdeformasinya litosfir diakibatkan oleh gaya-gaya tektonik yang bekerja sepanjang waktu. Batuan yang terkena stress akan mengalami regangan atau perubahan bentuk dan atau volume dalam keadaan padat yang disebut strain atau regangan.</span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Tahap deformasi</strong></span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Bila batuan mengalami penambahan stress akan terdeformasi melalui 3 tahap secara berurutan :</span></div>
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<ol style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 22px; margin-left: 25px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<li style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Elastic deformation</strong> adalah deformasi sementara tidak permanen atau dapat kembali ke bentuk awal (reversible). Begitu stress hilang, batuan kembali terbentuk dan volume seperti semula. Seperti karet yang ditarik akan melar tetapi jika dilepas akan kembali ke panjang semula. Elastisitas ini ada batasnya yang disebut elastic limit, yang apabila dilampaui batuan tidak akan kembali pada posisi awal. Di alam tidak pernah dijumpai batuan yang pernah mengalami depformasi elastis ini, karena tidak meninggalkan jejak atau bekas, karena kembali ke keadaan semula, baik bentuk maupun volumenya. Sir Robert Hooke (1635-1703) adalah orang pertama yang memperlihatkan hubungan antara stress dan strain yang sesuai dengan jenis batuannya. Hukum Hooke yang mengatakan bahwa sebelum melampaui batas elastisitasnya hubungan stress dan strain suatu material adalah linier.</span></li>
<li style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Ductile deformation</strong> merupakan deformasi dimana elastic limit dilampaui dan perubahan bentuk dan volume batuan tidak kembali ke bentuk semula. Untuk mempermudah membayangkannya dapat dilihat diagram strain-stress <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Gambar 2 </strong>yang di dapat dari percobaan dengan menekan contoh batuan berbentuk silindris. Mula-mula kurva stress-strain naik tajam sepanjang daerah elastis sesampai pada elastic limit (Z), kurvanya mendatar. Penambahan stress menyebabkan terjadinya deformasi ductile. Bila proses stress dihentikan pada titik X silinder akan kembali sedikit ke arah semula. Strain menurun sepanjang kurva X <sup style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 0.8em; height: 0px; line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">’ </sup>Y. Strain permanennya adalah XY yang merupakan deformasi ductile.</span></li>
<li style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Fracture</strong> tejadi apabila batas atau limit elastik dan ducktile deformasi dilampaui. Perhatikan <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Gambar 2</strong>yang semula stress dihentikan pada X <sup style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 0.8em; height: 0px; line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">‘</sup> , disini dilanjutkan dengan menaikkan stress. Kurva stress-strain berlanjut sampai ke titik F dan batuan akan pecah melalui rekahan. Deformasi rekah (fracture deformation) dan lentur (ductile deformation) adalah sama, menghasilkan regangan (strain) yang tidak kembali ke kondisi semula.</span></li>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><a href="http://primaedu.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/kurva-stress-strain2.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cd4517; cursor: pointer; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" class="alignleft size-medium wp-image-16" height="210" src="http://primaedu.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/kurva-stress-strain2.jpg?w=300&h=210" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 10px; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 10px; border-right-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 10px; border-style: initial; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 10px; border-width: initial; display: inline; float: left; margin-bottom: 12px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 15px; margin-top: 5px; max-width: 621px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="kurva stress strain" width="300" /></a>Gambar 2. Kurva stress-strain memperlihatkan deformasi elastik (X ke Z) limit elastis (Z) menandai dimulainya deformasi ductile. Bila stress dihentikan pada X<strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><sup style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 0.8em; height: 0px; line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;"> ‘</sup> </strong>maka benda akan kembali dalam keadaan tidak tertekan di Y melalui lintasan X ‘ Y. Jarak XY merupakan strain akibat deformasi ductile. Apabila stress dilanjutkan maka benda akan patah/pecah di titik fracture F.</span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Pengontrol Deformasi</strong></span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Percobaan-percobaan di laboratorium menunjukkan bahwa deformasi batuan, selain tergantung pada besarnya gaya yang bekerja, juga kepada sifat fisika dan kompisis batuan serta lingkungan tektonik dan waktu.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Suhu</strong></span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Makin tinggi suhu suatu benda padat semakin ductile sifatnya dan keregasannya makin berkurang. Misalnya pipa kaca tidak dapat dibengkokan pada suhu udara normal, bila dipaksa akan patah, karena regas (brittle). Setelah dipanaskan akan mudah dibengkokan. Demikian pula halnya dengan batuan. Di permukaan, sifatnya padat dan regas, tetapi jauh di bawah permukaan dimana suhunya tinggi, bersifat ductile.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Waktu dan strain rate</strong></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Pengaruh waktu dalam deformasi batuan sangat penting. Kecepatan strain sangat dipengaruhi oleh waktu. Strain yang terjadi bergantung kepada berapa lama batuan dikenai stress. Kecepatan batuan untuk berubah bentuk dan volume disebut <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">strain rate</strong>, yang dinyatakan dalam volume per unit volume per detik, di bumi berkisar antara 10<sup style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 0.8em; height: 0px; line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">-14</sup>/ detik sampai 10<sup style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 0.8em; height: 0px; line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">-15</sup>/ detik. Makin rendah strain rate batuan, makin besar kecenderungan terjadinya deformasi ductile.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Pengaruh suhu, confining pressure dan strain rate pada batuan, seperti ciri pada kerak, terutama di bagian atas dimana suhu dan confining pressure rendah tetapi strain rate tinggi, batuan cenderung tegas ( brittle) dan patah. Sedangkan bila pada suhu tinggi, confining pressure tinggi dan strain rate rendah sifat batuan akan menjadi kurang regas dan lebih bersifat ductile. Sekitar kedalaman 15 km, batuan akan bersifat regas dan mudah patah. Di bawah kedalaman 15 km batuan tidak mudah patah karena bersifat ductile. Kedalaman dimana sifat kerak berubah dari regas mulai menjadi ductile, disebut <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">brittle-ductile transition</strong>.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Komposisi</strong></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Komposisi batuan berpengaruh pada cara deformasinya. Komposisi mempunyai dua aspek. Pertama, jenis dan kandungan mineral dalam batuan, beberapa mineral (seprti kuarsa, garnet dan olivin) sangat brittle, sedangkan yang lainnya (seperti mika, lempung, kalsit dan gypsum) bersifat ductile. Kedua, kandungan air dalam batuan akan mengurangi keregasannya dan memperbesar keduktilannya. Pengaruh air, memperlemah ikatan kimia mineral-mineral dan melapisi butiran-butiran mineral yang memperlemah friksi antar butir. Jadi batuan yang ‘basah’ cenderung lebih ductile daripada batuan ‘kering’. Batuan yang cenderung terdeformasi ductile diantaranya adalah batu gamping, marmer, lanau, serpih, filit dan sekis. Sedangkan yang cenderung brittle daripada ductile, batupasir, kuarsit, granit, granodiorit, dan gneiss.</span></div>
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<div class="bg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://s0.wp.com/wp-content/themes/pub/choco/colors/default/images/date.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 0px 0px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; height: 62px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 18px; text-shadow: rgb(34, 34, 34) 0px 1px 1px; vertical-align: baseline; width: 70px;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><span class="day" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #feefcc; display: block; font-size: 26px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-transform: uppercase; vertical-align: baseline;">06</span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #feefcc; display: block; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-transform: uppercase; vertical-align: baseline;">AU<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 20px; text-transform: none;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Struktur geologi</strong> adalah arsitektur kulit Bumi atau gambaran geometri (bentuk dan hubungan) dari keadaan batuan di kulit bumi. Cabang ilmu geologi yang khusus mempelajari struktur geologi beserta gaya-gaya yang penyebabnya dinamakan <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">geologi struktur</strong>. Definisi lain yang lebih umum dan lengkap tentang geologi struktur, yaitu suatu ilmu yang membahas arsitektur kulit Bumi dan gejala-gejala yang menyebabkan terjadinya perubahan-perubahan bentuk (deformasi) pada kulit Bumi. Inti kajian geologi struktur adalah deformasi kulit Bumi, apa yang menyebabkan dan bagaimana akibatnya. Oleh karena itu, sebagaian para ahli menganggap bahwa geologi struktur sama dengan tektonik.</span></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Struktur batuan adalah bentuk dan kedudukan batuan yang dapat dilihat saat ini sebagai hasil dari 2 macam proses , yaitu :</span></div>
<ol style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 22px; margin-left: 25px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<li style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Proses yang berhubungan dengan pembentukan batuan tersebut yang akan menghasilkan struktur-struktur primer.</span></li>
<li style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Proses yang bekerja kemudian (setelah batuan tersebut terbentuk), yaitu berupa deformasi mekanis atau perubahan kimiawi yang mempengaruhi batuan setelah terbentuk. Proses ini akan menghasilkan struktur sekunder.</span></li>
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<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Spencer</strong> (1988) berpendapat bahwa yang dipelajari pada geologi struktur meliputi struktur primer dan struktur sekunder. Namun pada umumnya ilmu ini khusus mempelajari struktur sekunder saja, tetapi harus diketahui mengenai struktur primernya.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Deformasi yang terjadi pada kerak, yang kita amati sekarang ini adalah jejak deformasi yang telah terjadi beberapa ratus atau juta tahun yang lalu, dan dikenal sebagai struktur geologi. Dalam struktur geologi, deformasi yang terjadi akibat gaya tektonik dikelompokkan sebagai struktur sekunder dan dibedakan dari struktur yang terbentuk pada saat atau sebelum batuan terbentuk yang dinamakan <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">struktur primer</strong>. Yang termasuk dalam struktur primer adalah struktur-struktur pada batuan sedimen, seperti bidang perlapisan, lapisan bersusun (graded beding), lapisan silang siur (cross beding) dan jejak binatang. Sedangkan pada batuan beku adalah rekahan-rekahan yang terbentuk akibat pendinginan, dinamakan kekar kolom (columnar joints). Arah rekahan-rekahan yang tegak lurus terhadap bidang pendinginan, permukaannya segi enam, struktur aliran pada lava dan sebagainya. <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Struktur sekunder</strong> yang terbentuk setelah batuan terbentuk, adalah lipatan (fold), kekar (joint) dan sesar (fault).</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Jurus dan Kemiringan Bidang</strong></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Untuk dapat mendiskripsi terjadinya deformasi pada suatu lapisan batuan, misalnya pada batuan sedimen, diperlukan posisi atau kedudukan garis atau bidang setelah mengalami deformasi. Telah kita ketahui bahwa sedimen semula diendapkan dalam posisi horizontal. Setelah mengalami deformasi posisinya berubah, misalnya terlipat, maka posisi sayap (limb) antiklin atau sinklin tidak horizontal lagi. Posisi atau kedudukan bidang-bidang yang membentuk limb ini dinyatakan dalam <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">jurus</strong> atau <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">strike</strong> dan <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">kemiringan</strong> atau <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">dip</strong> yang dipergunakan untuk menyatakan kedudukan semua bidang di alam.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Jurus</strong> adalah arah garis yang merupakan perpotongan antara bidang di alam dengan bidang horizontal,dinyatakan terhadap arah Utara, searah jarum jam ke Timur. <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Gambar 3</strong>. Contohnya U 62<sup style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 0.8em; height: 0px; line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">o</sup> T, yang berarti arah jurusnya 62<sup style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 0.8em; height: 0px; line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">o</sup> dari Utara ke Timur.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><a href="http://primaedu.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/jurus-dan-strike2.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cd4517; cursor: pointer; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" class="alignleft size-full wp-image-14" src="http://primaedu.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/jurus-dan-strike2.jpg?w=645" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 10px; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 10px; border-right-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 10px; border-style: initial; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 10px; border-width: initial; display: inline; float: left; margin-bottom: 12px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 15px; margin-top: 5px; max-width: 621px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="jurus dan strike" /></a></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Gambar 3. Jurus dan kemiringan suatu bidang perlapisan. Jurusnya sejajar dengan permukaan air, yang dianggap bidang horizontal. Kemiringan, sudut terbesar, diukur pada bidang tegak lurus jurus (Hamblin, 1989)</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Kemiringan</strong> adalah sudut terbesar antara bidang (miring) di alam dengan bidang horizontal yang dinyatakan dalam derajat. Bidang horizontal tidak mempunyai kemiringan, atau 0<sup style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 0.8em; height: 0px; line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">o</sup> dan bidang tegak lurus 90<sup style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 0.8em; height: 0px; line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">o</sup>. Jurus dan kemiringan diukur di tempat dengan mempergunakan kompas geologi. Kompas geologi dilengkapi dengan <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">water pas</strong> (round level), untuk membuat bidang horizontal dan <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">klinometer</strong>(vernier for vertical angles) untuk mengukur kemiringan bidang, <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Gambar 4</strong>.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><a href="http://primaedu.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/kompas2.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cd4517; cursor: pointer; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" class="aligncenter size-medium wp-image-15" height="150" src="http://primaedu.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/kompas2.jpg?w=300&h=150" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 10px; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 10px; border-right-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 10px; border-style: initial; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 10px; border-width: initial; display: block; margin-bottom: 12px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; max-width: 621px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="kompas" width="300" /></a></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Gambar 4. Kompas Geologi tipe Brunton (Ainsworth, USA)</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Lipatan (fold)</strong></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Ragan (1973), menyatakan bahwa lipatan adalah hasil perubahan bentuk atau volume dari suatu bahan yang ditunjukkan sebagai lengkungan atau kumpulan lengkungan pada unsur garis atau bidang dari bahan tersebut. Sementara itu, Hobbs et al (1973) menyatakan bahwa lipatan adalah lengkungan yang dihasilkan oleh proses deformasi dari suatu permukaan batuan yang relatif datar.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Lipatan dapat merupakan pelengkungan lemah yang luas, bisa lebih dari ratusan kilometer sampai yang sangat kecil yang berskala mikroskopis. Lipatan sangat mudah dilihat pada batuan yang berlapis dan merupakan hasil deformasi ductile akibat kompresi dan shear stress. Pada strain rate sangat rendah dan di atas brittle-ductile transition, batuan dapat terlipat meskipun dekat permukaan.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Geometri lipatan</strong></span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Lipatan ke atas, melengkung ke atas atau cekung ke arah bawah disebut <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">antiklin</strong>. Kedua belah lereng antiklin saling menjauhi. Dan sebaliknya yang melengkung ke bawah, bagian bawahnya cembung dan lereng-lereng saling mendekati, disebut <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">sinklin</strong>. Umumnya kedua bentuk ini berpasangan, Gambar 5 dan 6.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><a href="http://primaedu.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/geometri-lipatan11.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cd4517; cursor: pointer; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" class="alignleft size-medium wp-image-10" height="148" src="http://primaedu.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/geometri-lipatan11.jpg?w=300&h=148" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 10px; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 10px; border-right-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 10px; border-style: initial; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 10px; border-width: initial; display: inline; float: left; margin-bottom: 12px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 15px; margin-top: 5px; max-width: 621px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="geometri lipatan" width="300" /></a>Gambar 5. Diagram blok memperlihatkan topografi lipatan yang menunjam. Lapisan batuan yang resistens membentuk topografi tinggi, pada antiklin maupun sinklin. Sedangkan batuan yang mudah tererosi membentuk topografi yang rendah, baik antiklin maupun sinklin (B.J. Skinner, 1992)</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Lereng sebelah menyebelah antiklin atau sinklin disebut <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">sayap</strong> (limb). Puncaknya dinamakan <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">crest</strong>dan titik terendah disebut <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">trough</strong>. Bidang simetri antara sayap disebut <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">bidang sumbu</strong> (axial plane), dan garis potongnya dengan permukaan, yang melalui crest maupun trough disebut <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">sumbu lipatan</strong> (fold axis). Apabila sumbu lipatan tidak dalam posisi horizontal berarti lipatannya menunjam (plunging). Bentuk lipatan tidak selalu simetris seperti pada <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Gambar 5</strong>, tetapi apabila perlipatannya lebih intensif bentuknya akan lebih kompleks. Bila stress yang bekerja lebih kuat maka lipatan menjadi miring. Sayap yang satu lebih landai dari pasangannya, atau dip nya tidak sama. Apabila stress berlanjut, kemiringan bidang sumbunya mengecil hingga hampir horizontal.</span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Klasifikasi lipatan</strong></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Gaya tektonik yang sudah bekerja sejak ratusan juta tahun membuat kerak terlipat-lipat. Kadang-kadang sampai beberapa kali, tidak hanya sekali saja. Oleh karena itu struktur lipatan yang dihasilkannya sangat bervariasi dari yang sederhana sampai yang kompleks, baik bentuk maupun dimensinya. Dasar klasifikasinya ada beberapa, dan yang paling sederhana adalah kedudukan kedua belah sayapnya, kedudukan bidang sumbu dan keketatan lipatannya, Tabel 1.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Sesar (fault)</strong></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Kadang-kadang deformasi berlangsung cukup cepat untuk diamati dan diukur. Untuk memudahkan pengamatan deformasi kerak bumi dapat digolongkan dalam dua kelompok besar yaitu gerakan mendadak yang mengakibatkan terjadinya rekahan, dimana blok-blok kerak tiba-tiba bergerak beberapa sentimeter atau beberapa meter dalam hitungan menit atau jam. Dan gerak yang lamban serta bertahap termasuk deformasi ductile. Geraknya tetap, menerus tetapi tidak disertai hentakan. Gerakan mendadak melibatkan rekahan pada batuan regas (britle). Rekahan pada batuan dimana terjadi pergeseran di sepanjang rekahan dinamakan <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">sesar</strong>, patahan atau <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">fault</strong>. Sekali rekahan mulai, maka akan timbul gesekan yang mengikuti pergeseran. Selanjutnya perlahan-lahan stress terkumpul atau tertahan selama gesekan antara kedua sisi sesar dapat mengatasinya. Kemudian mendadak terjadi lagi pergeseran. Jika stress tetap ada, perulangan penumpukan stress yang diakhiri dengan pergeseran mendadak terjadi berulang kali. Meskipun gerakan sesar besar sampai beberapa kilometer, tetapi jarak tersebut merupakan jumlah dari gerakan mendadak yang kecil-kecil. Setiap gerak mendadak dapat menimbulkan gempa. Pergerakan mendadak pada litosfir biasanya disertai gempa bumi.</span></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 0px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 0px; background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 22px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline; width: 644px;"><tbody style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><td style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 6px; padding-left: 24px; padding-right: 24px; padding-top: 6px; vertical-align: baseline;" valign="top" width="291"><div align="center" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Nama lipatan</strong></div>
</td><td style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 6px; padding-left: 24px; padding-right: 24px; padding-top: 6px; vertical-align: baseline;" valign="top" width="291"><div align="center" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Ciri-ciri yang dimiliki</strong></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><td colspan="2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 6px; padding-left: 24px; padding-right: 24px; padding-top: 6px; vertical-align: baseline;" valign="top" width="581"><div align="center" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Berdasarkan kedudukan sayap (limb)</strong></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><td style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 6px; padding-left: 24px; padding-right: 24px; padding-top: 6px; vertical-align: baseline;" valign="top" width="291">Lipatan simetri</td><td style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 6px; padding-left: 24px; padding-right: 24px; padding-top: 6px; vertical-align: baseline;" valign="top" width="291">Kemiringan sayap sama</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><td style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 6px; padding-left: 24px; padding-right: 24px; padding-top: 6px; vertical-align: baseline;" valign="top" width="291">Lipatan asimetri</td><td style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 6px; padding-left: 24px; padding-right: 24px; padding-top: 6px; vertical-align: baseline;" valign="top" width="291">Kemiringan sayap tidak sama, yang satu lebih tegak dari sebelahnya</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><td colspan="2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 6px; padding-left: 24px; padding-right: 24px; padding-top: 6px; vertical-align: baseline;" valign="top" width="581"><div align="center" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Berdasarkan kedudukan bidang sumbu</strong></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><td style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 6px; padding-left: 24px; padding-right: 24px; padding-top: 6px; vertical-align: baseline;" valign="top" width="291">Lipatan tegak</td><td style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 6px; padding-left: 24px; padding-right: 24px; padding-top: 6px; vertical-align: baseline;" valign="top" width="291">Kedudukan bidang sumbu tegak atau vertikal</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><td style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 6px; padding-left: 24px; padding-right: 24px; padding-top: 6px; vertical-align: baseline;" valign="top" width="291">Lipatan miring</td><td style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 6px; padding-left: 24px; padding-right: 24px; padding-top: 6px; vertical-align: baseline;" valign="top" width="291">Kedudukan bidang sumbu condong atau miring</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><td style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 6px; padding-left: 24px; padding-right: 24px; padding-top: 6px; vertical-align: baseline;" valign="top" width="291">Lipatan rebah (recumbent fold)</td><td style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 6px; padding-left: 24px; padding-right: 24px; padding-top: 6px; vertical-align: baseline;" valign="top" width="291">Bidang sumbunya sangat miring, hampir rebah</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><td colspan="2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 6px; padding-left: 24px; padding-right: 24px; padding-top: 6px; vertical-align: baseline;" valign="top" width="581"><div align="center" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">
<strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Berdasarkan keketatan (tightness)</strong></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><td style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 6px; padding-left: 24px; padding-right: 24px; padding-top: 6px; vertical-align: baseline;" valign="top" width="291">Lipatan landai (gentle)</td><td style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 6px; padding-left: 24px; padding-right: 24px; padding-top: 6px; vertical-align: baseline;" valign="top" width="291">Sudut antara kedua sayap 170<sup style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 0.8em; height: 0px; line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">o</sup> atau lebih</td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><td style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 6px; padding-left: 24px; padding-right: 24px; padding-top: 6px; vertical-align: baseline;" valign="top" width="291">Lipatan terbuka (open)</td><td style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 6px; padding-left: 24px; padding-right: 24px; padding-top: 6px; vertical-align: baseline;" valign="top" width="291">Besar sudutnya 90<sup style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 0.8em; height: 0px; line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">o</sup></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><td style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 6px; padding-left: 24px; padding-right: 24px; padding-top: 6px; vertical-align: baseline;" valign="top" width="291">Lipatan ketat (tight)</td><td style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 6px; padding-left: 24px; padding-right: 24px; padding-top: 6px; vertical-align: baseline;" valign="top" width="291">Besar sudutnya 10<sup style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 0.8em; height: 0px; line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">o</sup></td></tr>
<tr style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><td style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 6px; padding-left: 24px; padding-right: 24px; padding-top: 6px; vertical-align: baseline;" valign="top" width="291">Lipatan isoklinal</td><td style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(231, 231, 231); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 6px; padding-left: 24px; padding-right: 24px; padding-top: 6px; vertical-align: baseline;" valign="top" width="291">Kedua sayapnya sejajr atau besudut 0<sup style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; font-size: 0.8em; height: 0px; line-height: 1; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; position: relative; vertical-align: baseline;">o</sup></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Tabel 1. Klasifikasi lipatan berdasarkan kepada kedua bidang sayap, kedudukan bidang sumbu dan keketatan sudaut antara kedua sayapnya.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><a href="http://primaedu.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/lipatan-sederhana2.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cd4517; cursor: pointer; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" class="alignleft size-medium wp-image-17" height="198" src="http://primaedu.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/lipatan-sederhana2.jpg?w=300&h=198" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 10px; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 10px; border-right-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 10px; border-style: initial; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 10px; border-width: initial; display: inline; float: left; margin-bottom: 12px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 15px; margin-top: 5px; max-width: 621px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="lipatan sederhana" width="300" /></a>Gambar 6. Lipatan sederhana dengan bagian-bagiannya, lereng yang saling menjauhi disebut antiklin (bagian kiri dan kanan) dan yang saling mendekati dinamakan sinklin (di tengah-tengah). Sebelah kiri sumbu lipatan mendatar dan sumbu lipatan menunjam sebelah kanan (Skinner, 1992)</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Gerak relatif</strong></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Definisi sesar adalah rekahan pada batuan yang mengalami pergerakan yang sejajar dengan bidangnya. Umumnya tidak mungkin untuk dapat mengetahui berapa besar gerak sebenarnya yang terjadi sepanjang sesar dan blok bagian mana yang bergerak dan blok yang diam, karena bergeraknya sudah berlangsung pada waktu lampau. Dalam klasifikasi pergeseran sesar dipergunakan istilah pergeseran relatif, karena tidak tahu blok mana yang bergerak; dapat dikatakan bahwa satu sisi sesar bergerak relatif terhadap sisi lainnya. Pergeseran salah satu sisinya melalui bidang sesar membuat salah satu blok relatif naik, turun, atau mendatar terhadap lainnya. Blok yang berada di atas bidang sesar disebut blok <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">hanging wall</strong> sedangkan yang di bawah disebut blok <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">foot wall</strong>, Gambar 7.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"> <a href="http://primaedu.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/hanging-wall2.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cd4517; cursor: pointer; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" class="alignleft size-medium wp-image-11" height="226" src="http://primaedu.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/hanging-wall2.jpg?w=300&h=226" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 10px; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 10px; border-right-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 10px; border-style: initial; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 10px; border-width: initial; display: inline; float: left; margin-bottom: 12px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 15px; margin-top: 5px; max-width: 621px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="hanging wall" width="300" /></a></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Gambar 7. Diagram balok sesar memperlihatkan blok hanging wall tergantung di atas kepala penambang (bidang sesar) dan foot wall, blok yang ada di kakinya (di bawah bidang sesar)(Skinner, 2004).</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Klasifikasi Sesar</strong></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Sesar diklasifikasi berdasarkan atas : dip dari bidang sesar dan arah gerak relatifnya, menjadi sesar normal, sesar naik, (reverse fault atau thrust fault) dan sesar mendatar (strike slip fault).</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">a. Sesar normal</strong></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Sesar normal disebut juga sesar turun disebabkan oleh stress tensional yang seolah-olah menarik/memisahkan kerak. Seperti halnya juga bila kerak mengalami gaya dari bawah.<br />Sesar normal didefinisikan sebagai sesar yang hanging wallnya relatif turun terhadap foot wall. Atau sebaliknya, dapat dikatakan foot wall relatif naik terhadap hanging-wall, <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Gambar 7</strong>. Umumnya, dua atau lebih sesar normal dengan jurus sejajar dan kemiringan berlawanan membentuk segmen tinggian dan amblesan pada kerak.<br />Blok yang ‘turun’ dinamakan <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">graben</strong> atau rift, jika dibatasi oleh dua sesar normal, <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Gambar 8</strong> dan half graben bila pelengseran hanya pada satu sesar normal. Blok yang ‘naik’ diantara dua sesar normal dinamakan <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">horst</strong>. Sesar normal banyak sekali dijumpai pada kerak bumi yang mengalami stress tensional.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><a href="http://primaedu.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/horst-dan-graben2.png" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; color: #cd4517; cursor: pointer; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" class="alignleft size-medium wp-image-12" height="158" src="http://primaedu.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/horst-dan-graben2.png?w=300&h=158" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 10px; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-left-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 10px; border-right-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 10px; border-style: initial; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(226, 226, 226); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 10px; border-width: initial; display: inline; float: left; margin-bottom: 12px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 15px; margin-top: 5px; max-width: 621px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-top: 2px; vertical-align: baseline;" title="horst dan graben" width="300" /></a></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Gambar 8. Horst dan graben terjadi akibat stress tensional membentuk sesar-sesar normal.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">b. Sesar naik (reverse fault) dan thrust fault</strong></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Sesar naik berkembang karena stress kompresional. Gerak pada sesar naik, blok hanging wall relatif naik terhadap blok foot wall. Sesar naik terjadi karena kerak memendek. Bila kemiringan bidang sesarnya lebih dinamakan sesar anjakan kecil dari 45 berasosiasi dengan perlipatan°(thrust fault). Dan umumnya kuat, akibat gaya kompresi horizontal sangat kuat pada kerak bumi. Thrust fault berkembang dari lipatan yang kemudian tersesarkan. Thrust fault banyak dijumpai pada pegunungan lipatan.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">c. Sesar mendatar (strike slip fault)</strong></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Sesar mendatar sering juga disebut sesar geser. Akibat bekerjanya shear stress gerak utama sesar ini adalah horizontal dan sejajar dengan bidang sesarnya.<br />Pergerakan lateralnya ditentukan dengan melihat bidang sesarnya. Bila pengamat berdiri didepan blok sesar yang bergerak kearah kanannya, maka sesar mendatar tersebut namanya <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">sesar mendatar menganan</strong> atau sesar mendatar <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">dextral</strong>.<br />Atau dikatakan juga right lateral slip fault. Dan sebaliknya bila blok didepan pengamat bergerak kekiri namanya<strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">sesar mendatar mengiri</strong> atau sesar mendatar <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">sinister</strong> (left lateral slip fault).<br />Contoh sesar mendatar besar yang terkenal adalah sesar San Andreas di California Amerika dan di Indonesia, sesar Sumatra, sepanjang bagian Barat pulau Sumatra, sesar Palu-Koro di Sulawesi, sesar Sorong di Irian dan lainnya. Pada umumnya sesar mendatar besar merupakan batas lempeng, atau kejadiannya berkaitan dengan aktivitas pergerakan lempeng. Oleh karena itu kebanyakan masih aktif (masih bergerak sampai saat ini meskipun sangat lambat) seperti contoh diatas, keduanya masih aktif.<br />Meskipun geraknya tidak teramati, tetapi pengaruhnya jelas. Sepannjang sesar sering terjadi gempa bumi dan tanah longsor.<br />Sesar mendatar yang merupakan batas lempeng dan berkaitan dengan pemekaran lempeng namanya sesar transform, seperti yang terdapat di lantai samudra.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Indikasi gerak sesar</strong></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Sering kita jumpai dinding atau bidang rekahan, namun tidak dapat dengan segera mengetahui apakah pernah terjadi gerakan atau pergeseran sepanjang bidang tersebut atau tidak. Dengan kata lain kita tidak dapat menentukan apakah bidang tersebut akibat sesar.<br />Ada beberapa jejak yang ditimbulkan dan terekam oleh gesekan pada batuan yang tersesarkan. Diantaranya adalah <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">gores-garis</strong> (slickensides), gesekan antara batuan yang keras, permukaannya menjadi halus dan licin disertai goresan-goresan dan striasi pada bidang sesar. Tidak semua sesar mempunyainya, atau sudah tidak tampak lagi karena tererosi. Kebanyakan gerak sesar menghancurkan batuan yang begesekan menjadi berbagai ukuran yang tidak beraturan besarnya, membentuk <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">breksi sesar</strong> (fault breccia).<br />Breksi sesar dapat dengan mudah dibedakan dari breksi sedimenter karena fragmen dan matriksnya terdiri dari material yang sama. Biasanya fragmen dalam breksi sesar memperlihatkan arah yang sama dengan sesarnya.<br />Gejala lainnya adalah bergesernya lapisan batuan pada blok-blok yang tersesarkan.<br />Pergeseran lapisan disebut sebagai <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">offset bidang perlapisan</strong>. Adanya offset bidang perlapisan mempermudah menentukan jenis sesar.<br />Kemudian, akibat adanya gesekan antar blok, lapisan sekitar sesar terseret dan terlipat, menjadikan <strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">lipatan-lipatan seretan</strong> (drag fold atau drag fault).<br />Selain itu masih ada beberapa gejala lain yang diakibatkan sesar dan sangat membantu dalam menentukan gerak relatif sesar.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Hubungan lipatan dan sesar</strong></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Lipatan dan sesar tidak selalu menerus. Sesar-sesar cenderung berhenti sebagai lipatan Lipatan, akan berhenti diujungnya yang makin mengecil,<br />Jika dua macam batuan terkena tegasan yang sama, yang regas (britle) akan terdeformasi sebagai rekahan atau tersesarkan, dan lainnya yang lentur (ductile) terdeformasi ductile. Hasilnya adalah sebuah lipatan monoklin,<br />Beberapa sesar anjakan (thrust fault), diawali oleh lipatan rebah yang karena tegasannya berlanjut, sayapnya yang terbalik tertarik kuat, teregangkan dan akhirnya patah menjadi sesar anjakan.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Gambar 9. Jenis Sesar</span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;"><strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Kekar (joint)</strong></span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; line-height: 20px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Kekar adalah suatu fracture (tretakan pada batuan) yang relatif tidak mengalami pergeseran pada bidang rekahnya (<strong style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Ragan</strong>, 1973). Kekar dapat disebabkan oleh terjadinya gejala tektonik maupun non tektonik. Kekar atau joint adalah rekahan-rekahan pada batuan, lurus, planar dan tidak terjadi pergeseran.<br />Kekar umumnya terdapat sebagai rekahan tensional dan tidak ada gerak sejajar bidangnya.Kekar membagi-bagi batuan yang tersingkap menjadi blok-blok yang besarnya bergantung pada kerapatan kekarnya. Dan merupakan bentuk rekahan paling sederhana yang dijumpai pada hampir semua batuan. Biasanya terdapat sebagai dua set rekahan, yang perpotongannya membentuk sudut berkisar antara 45 sampai 90 derajat.<br />Kekar mungkin berhubungan dengan sesar besar atau oleh pengangkatan kerak yang luas, dapat tersebar sampai ribuan meter persegi luasnya. Umumnya pada batuan yang regas. Kebanyakan kekar merupakan hasil pembubungan kerak atau dari kompresi atau tarikan (tension) berkaitan dengan sesar atau lipatan.<br />Ada kekar tensional yang diakibatkan oleh pelepasan beban atau pemuaian batuan. Kekar kolom pada batuan volkanik terbentuk oleh tegasan yang terjadi ketika lava mendingin dan mengkerut.<br />Pada lapisan-lapisan sedimen terutama batupasir, sering terdapat kekar-kekar yang bervariasi arahnya. Rekahan ini terbentuk selama penimbunan dan litifikasi yang akan tetap tertutup selama tertimbun dikedalaman. Karena erosi dan tersingkap, sedikit pendinginan dan kompresi relief memungkinkan rekahan agak terbuka.<br />Pada beberapa daerah kekar mengontrol pola aliran sungai, terutama aliran-aliran sekundernya.<br />Kekar juga mempunyai nilai ekonomis. Dapat memperbesar permeabilitas yang penting bagi migrasi dan menampung air tanah dan minyak bumi.<br />Analisa kekar sangat diperlukan dalam eksplorasi dan pengembangan sumber daya alam. Rekahan-rekahan mengontrol endapan mineral, tembaga, timbal, seng, merkuri,perak,emas dan tungsten.<br />Larutan hidrotermal yang berasosiasi dengan intrusi batuan beku mengalir sepanjang kekar-kekar dan mengendapkan mineral-mineral sepanjang dinding kekar, membentuk urat-urat mineral (mineral veins).<br />Konstruksi besar, seperti bendungan, sangat perlu memperhatikan sistem kekar pada batuan. Selain mempengaruhi daya dukung batuan, kekar juga dapat menimbulkan masalah kebocoran.<br />Dalam penambangan batuan, marmer, granit dll, sistem kekarlah yang menentukan berapa besar blok batuan yang dapat ditambang. Dan adanya kekar-kekar akan mengurangi peledakan yang diperlukan.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Jenis-jenis Kekar</span></div>
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<li style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Kekar pengerutan (“Shrinkage joint”), disebabkan oleh gaya pengerutan yang timbul karena pendinginan (pada batuan beku : kekar tiang) atau pengeringan (pada batuan sedimen)</span></li>
<li style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Kekar lembaran (“sheet joint”) yaitu sekumpulan kekar yang kira-kira sejajar dengan permukaan tanah, terutama pada batuan beku.</span></li>
<li style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-color: initial; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-top-width: 0px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #444444; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Kekar karena tektonik, yaitu kekar yang terbentuk karena proses endogen, yang berupa pasangan garis yang lurus. </span></li>
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<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16657756079639024986noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4946753298851728224.post-90053461423212567582012-06-25T18:55:00.001-07:002012-06-25T18:57:49.835-07:00Siklus Air (siklus hidrologi) di Bumi<br />
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<span style="background-color: #ececec; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">Daur hidrologi sering juga dipakai istilah water cycle atau siklus air. Suatu sirkulasi air yang meliputi gerakan mulai dari laut ke atmosfer, dari atmosfer ke tanah, dan kembali ke laut lagi atau dengan arti lain siklus hidrologi merupakan rangkaian proses berpindahnya air permukaan bumi dari suatu tempat ke tempat lainnya hingga kembali ke tempat asalnya.</span><br />
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<span style="background-color: #ececec; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">Air naik ke udara dari permukaan laut atau dari daratan melalui evaporasi. Air di atmosfer dalam bentuk uap air atau awan bergerak dalam massa yang besar di atas benua dan dipanaskan oleh radiasi tanah. Panas membuat uap air lebih naik lagi sehingga cukup tinggi/dingin untuk terjadi kondensasi.</span><br />
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4946753298851728224" name="more" style="background-color: #ececec; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;"></a><span style="background-color: #ececec; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">Uap air berubah jadi embun dan seterusnya jadi hujan atau salju. Curahan (precipitation) turun ke bawah, ke daratan atau langsung ke laut. Air yang tiba di daratan kemudian mengalir di atas permukaan sebagai sungai, terus kembali ke laut. Air yang tiba di daratan kemudian mengalir di atas permukaan sebagai sungai, terus kembali ke laut melengkapi siklus air.</span><br />
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<span style="background-color: #ececec; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">Dalam perjalanannya dari atmosfer ke luar, air mengalami banyak interupsi. Sebagian dari air hujan yang turun dari awan menguap sebelum tiba di permukaan bumi, sebagian lagi jatuh di atas daun tumbuh-tumbuhan (intercception) dan menguap dari permukaan daun-daun. Air yang tiba di tanah dapat mengalir terus ke laut, namun ada juga yang meresap dulu ke dalam tanah (infiltration) dan sampai ke lapisan batuan sebagai air tanah.</span><br />
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<span style="background-color: #ececec; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">Sebagian dari air tanah dihisap oleh tumbuh-tumbuhan melalui daun-daunan lalu menguapkan airnya ke udara (transpiration). Air yang mengalir di atas permukaan menuju sungai kemungkinan tertahan di kolam, selokan, dan sebagainya (surface detention), ada juga yang sementara tersimpan di danau, tetapi kemudian menguap atau sebaliknya, sebagian air mengalir di atas permukaan tanah melalui parit, sungai, hingga menuju ke laut ( surface run off ), sebagian lagi infiltrasi ke dasar danau-danau dan bergabung di dalam tanah sebagai air tanah yang pada akhirnya ke luar sebagai mata air.</span><br />
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<span style="background-color: #ececec; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">Siklus hidrologi dibedakan ke dalam tiga jenis yaitu:</span><br />
<a name='more'></a><br style="background-color: #ececec; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;" /><br />
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<span style="background-color: #ececec; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">1. Siklus Pendek : Air laut menguap kemudian melalui proses kondensasi berubah menjadi butir-butir air yang halus atau awan dan selanjutnya hujan langsung jatuh ke laut dan akan kembali berulang.</span><br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisxSziK3QKSWKuuSllRQhSBVE971LqRYJRO8YSCepOYwmZKKAfw4Pj6DvNJq0sOpmfGkzqhRM_eKpe6UV0KIHrziyZ1R9RJ31MdVx6_gw8GS3ApXQeLPKdnwQV6aH_yDO-gBTo4ruOyAcp/s1600/1.jpg" style="background-color: #ececec; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5459272052268916082" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisxSziK3QKSWKuuSllRQhSBVE971LqRYJRO8YSCepOYwmZKKAfw4Pj6DvNJq0sOpmfGkzqhRM_eKpe6UV0KIHrziyZ1R9RJ31MdVx6_gw8GS3ApXQeLPKdnwQV6aH_yDO-gBTo4ruOyAcp/s400/1.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; cursor: pointer; display: block; height: 178px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; max-width: 500px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 300px;" /></a><br />
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<span style="background-color: #ececec; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">2. Siklus Sedang : Air laut menguap lalu dibawa oleh angin menuju daratan dan melalui proses kondensasi berubah menjadi awan lalu jatuh sebagai hujan di daratan dan selanjutnya meresap ke dalam tanah lalu kembali ke laut melalui sungai-sungai atau saluran-saluran air.</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1w_6kk8FMAAila9_A-5vVqlixLkBMOqoKEPxBE2C2-t4vjnkb5-zJGE27MXsEDl_xhI-jDU2q9aXL-jqSTtZFLoyM_csJtKMKyEaKjOqlEawFolJ9FMLHmeZzynPMdZwMrRuDCnBsaBiT/s1600/2.jpg" style="background-color: #ececec; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5459272378156951730" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1w_6kk8FMAAila9_A-5vVqlixLkBMOqoKEPxBE2C2-t4vjnkb5-zJGE27MXsEDl_xhI-jDU2q9aXL-jqSTtZFLoyM_csJtKMKyEaKjOqlEawFolJ9FMLHmeZzynPMdZwMrRuDCnBsaBiT/s400/2.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; cursor: pointer; display: block; height: 152px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; max-width: 500px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 300px;" /></a><br />
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<span style="background-color: #ececec; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">3. Siklus Panjang : Air laut menguap, setelah menjadi awan melalui proses kondensasi, lalu terbawa oleh angin ke tempat yang lebih tinggi di daratan dan terjadilah hujan salju atau es di pegunungan-pegunungan yang tinggi. Bongkah-bongkah es mengendap di puncak gunung dan karena gaya beratnya meluncur ke tempat yang lebih rendah, mencair terbentuk gletser lalu mengalir melalui sungai-sungai kembali ke laut.</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEixF3PnsF6kFKDf1xjnBIDkjZe-mgWJzDdUhG9gQUioyw-ODduX2KYEUZis-pUPDTfHh6zBYLG1F31oS9PVDT0Lk9kH3_nimn2OVUHFzi5g_LNRc-al2oJJwVGewSR9gYXzEYdN8qyzFyet/s1600/3.jpg" style="background-color: #ececec; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5459272649830625794" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEixF3PnsF6kFKDf1xjnBIDkjZe-mgWJzDdUhG9gQUioyw-ODduX2KYEUZis-pUPDTfHh6zBYLG1F31oS9PVDT0Lk9kH3_nimn2OVUHFzi5g_LNRc-al2oJJwVGewSR9gYXzEYdN8qyzFyet/s400/3.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; cursor: pointer; display: block; height: 167px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; max-width: 500px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 300px;" /></a><br />
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<span style="background-color: #ececec; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">Unsur-unsur utama dalam siklus hidrologi :</span><br />
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<span style="background-color: #ececec; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">* Evaporasi: penguapan dari badan air secara langsung</span><br />
<span style="background-color: #ececec; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">* Transpirasi: penguapan air yang terkandung dalam tumbuhan</span><br />
<span style="background-color: #ececec; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">* Respirasi: penguapan air dari tubuh hewan dan manusia</span><br />
<span style="background-color: #ececec; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">* Evapotranspirasi: perpaduan evaporasi dan transpirasi</span><br />
<span style="background-color: #ececec; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">* Kondensasi: proses perubahan wujud uap air menjadi titik-titik air sebagai hasil pendinginan</span><br />
<span style="background-color: #ececec; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">* Presipitasi: segala bentuk curahan atau hujan dari atmosfer ke bumi yang meliputi hujan air, hujan es, hujan salju</span><br />
<span style="background-color: #ececec; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">* Infiltrasi: air yang jatuh ke permukaan tanah dan meresap ke dalam tanah</span><br />
<span style="background-color: #ececec; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">* Perkolasi: air yang meresap terus sampai ke kedalaman tertentu hingga mencapai air tanah atau groundwater</span><br />
<span style="background-color: #ececec; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">* Run off: air yang mengalir di atas permukaan tanah melalui parit, sungai, hingga menuju ke laut.</span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNBarhPJB47fduiCQ3H8w3014cEUPKddlMmwScVX8lqRBJqHNcshYjsYhoywa8FEBC66Y-DtQ4YKXr5AecP50HuinGVmmmV38VaF5_STaUC0-lz5TMahf_rXwhL9flZ28FKDVAf7Z9F0nw/s1600/bp-watercycle2.jpg" style="background-color: #ececec; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5459273055539056770" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNBarhPJB47fduiCQ3H8w3014cEUPKddlMmwScVX8lqRBJqHNcshYjsYhoywa8FEBC66Y-DtQ4YKXr5AecP50HuinGVmmmV38VaF5_STaUC0-lz5TMahf_rXwhL9flZ28FKDVAf7Z9F0nw/s400/bp-watercycle2.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(238, 238, 238); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; cursor: pointer; display: block; height: 314px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; list-style-type: none; margin-bottom: 10px; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 0px; max-width: 500px; outline-color: initial; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 400px;" /></a><span style="background-color: #ececec; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">Siklus hidrologi digambarkan secara lengkap</span>
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<span style="background-color: #ececec; font-family: arial, tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px; text-align: left;">sumber : </span><a href="http://www.adipedia.com/2011/04/siklus-air-siklus-hidrologi-di-bumi.html" style="background-color: white;">http://www.adipedia.com/2011/04/siklus-air-siklus-hidrologi-di-bumi.html</a></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16657756079639024986noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4946753298851728224.post-69795058454661138332012-06-25T18:41:00.001-07:002012-06-25T18:43:56.976-07:00ROCK CYCLE / SIKLUS BATUAN<div style="border-bottom: solid #AABBBB 1.5pt; border: none; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in;">
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><a href="http://doddys.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/oum_rock.gif" style="color: #226699; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="oum_rock.gif"><img align="right" alt="oum_rock.gif" height="123" src="http://doddys.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/oum_rock.thumbnail.gif?w=117&h=123" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; position: relative;" width="117" /></a><a href="http://doddys.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/rock_cycle.jpg" style="color: #226699; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="rock_cycle.jpg"><img align="left" alt="rock_cycle.jpg" height="126" src="http://doddys.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/rock_cycle.thumbnail.jpg?w=150&h=126" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; height: 124px; position: relative; width: 150px;" width="150" /></a>Sebelumnya kita sudah tahu bahwa di bumi ada tiga jenis batuan yaitu batuan beku, batuan sedimen, dan batuan metamorf. Ketiga batuan tersebut dapat berubah menjadi batuan metamorf tetapi ketiganya juga bisa berubah menjadi batuan lainnya. Semua batuan akan mengalami pelapukan dan erosi menjadi partikel-partikel atau pecahan-pecahan yang lebih kecil yang akhirnya juga bisa membentuk batuan sedimen. Batuan juga bisa melebur atau meleleh menjadi magma dan kemudian kembali menjadi batuan beku. Kesemuanya ini disebut siklus batuan atau <b><em>ROCK CYCLE</em></b>.<span id="more-221"></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"> <a href="http://doddys.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/weathering.jpg" style="color: #226699; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="weathering.jpg"><img align="right" alt="weathering.jpg" src="http://doddys.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/weathering.thumbnail.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; position: relative;" /></a></span><span style="font-family: Arial;">Semua batuan yang ada di permukaan bumi akan mengalami pelapukan. Penyebab pelapukan tersebut ada 3 macam:</span></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><strong>Pelapukan secara fisika</strong>: perubahan suhu dari panas ke dingin akan membuat batuan mengalami perubahan. Hujan pun juga dapat membuat rekahan-rekahan yang ada di batuan menjadi berkembang sehingga proses-proses fisika tersebut dapat membuat batuan pecah menjadi bagian yang lebih kecil lagi.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><strong>Pelapukan secara kimia</strong>: beberapa jenis larutan kimia dapat bereaksi dengan batuan seperti contohnya larutan HCl akan bereaksi dengan batu gamping. Bahkan air pun dapat bereaksi melarutan beberapa jenis batuan. Salah satu contoh yang nyata adalah “hujan asam” yang sangat mempengaruhi terjadinya pelapukan secara kimia.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><strong>Pelapukan secara biologi</strong>: Selain pelapukan yang terjadi akibat proses fisikan dan kimia, salah satu pelapukan yang dapat terjadi adalah pelapukan secara biologi. Salah satu contohnya adalah pelapukan yang disebabkan oleh gangguan dari akar tanaman yang cukup besar. Akar-akar tanaman yang besar ini mampu membuat rekahan-rekahan di batuan dan akhirnya dapat memecah batuan menjadi bagian yang lebih kecil lagi.</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><a href="http://doddys.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/erosion.jpg" style="color: #226699; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="erosion.jpg"><img align="right" alt="erosion.jpg" src="http://doddys.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/erosion.thumbnail.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; position: relative;" /></a>Setelah batuan mengalami pelapukan, batuan-batuan tersebut akan pecah menjadi bagian yang lebih kecil lagi sehingga mudah untuk berpindah tempat. Berpindahnya tempat dari partikel-partikel kecil ini disebut erosi. Proses erosi ini dapat terjadi melalui beberapa cara:</span></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><strong>Akibat grafitasi</strong>: akibat adanya grafitasi bumi maka pecahan batuan yang ada bisa langsung jatuh ke permukaan tanah atau menggelinding melalui tebing sampai akhirnya terkumpul di permukaan tanah.<a name='more'></a></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><strong>Akibat air</strong>: air yang melewati pecahan-pecahan kecil batuan yang ada dapat mengangkut pecahan tersebut dari satu tempat ke tempat yang lain. Salah satu contoh yang dapat diamati dengan jelas adalah peranan sungai dalam mengangkut pecahan-pecahan batuan yang kecil ini.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><strong>Akibat angin</strong>: selain air, angin pun dapat mengangkut pecahan-pecahan batuan yang kecil ukurannya seperti halnya yang saat ini terjadi di daerah gurun.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><strong>Akibat glasier</strong>: sungai es atau yang sering disebut glasier seperti yang ada di Alaska sekarang juga mampu memindahkan pecahan-pecahan batuan yang ada.</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><a href="http://doddys.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/deposition.jpg" style="color: #226699; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="deposition.jpg"><img align="left" alt="deposition.jpg" src="http://doddys.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/deposition.thumbnail.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; position: relative;" /></a>Pecahan-pecahan batuan yang terbawa akibat erosi tidak dapat terbawa selamanya. Seperti halnya sungai akan bertemu laut, angin akan berkurang tiupannya, dan juga glasier akan meleleh. Akibat semua ini, maka pecahan batuan yang terbawa akan terendapkan. Proses ini yang sering disebut proses pengendapan. Selama proses pengendapan, pecahan batuan akan diendapkan secara berlapis dimana pecahan yang berat akan diendapkan terlebih dahulu baru kemudian diikuti pecahan yang lebih ringan dan seterusnya. Proses pengendapan ini akan membentuk perlapisan pada batuan yang sering kita lihat di batuan sedimen saat ini.</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"><a href="http://doddys.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/compaction.jpg" style="color: #226699; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="compaction.jpg"><img align="left" alt="compaction.jpg" src="http://doddys.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/compaction.thumbnail.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; position: relative;" /></a>Pada saat perlapisan di batuan sedimen ini terbentuk, tekanan yang ada di perlapisan yang paling bawah akan bertambah akibat pertambahan beban di atasnya. Akibat pertambahan tekanan ini, air yang ada dalam lapisan-lapisan batuan akan tertekan sehingga keluar dari lapisan batuan yang ada. Proses ini sering disebut kompaksi. Pada saat yang bersamaan pula, partikel-partikel yang ada dalam lapisan mulai bersatu. Adanya semen seperti lempung, silika, atau kalsit diantara partikel-partikel yang ada membuat partikel tersebut menyatu membentuk batuan yang lebih keras. Proses ini sering disebut sementasi. </span><span style="font-family: Arial;">Setelah proses kompaksi dan sementasi terjadi pada pecahan batuan yang ada, perlapisan sedimen yang ada sebelumnya berganti menjadi batuan sedimen yang berlapis-lapis. Batuan sedimen seperti batu pasir, batu lempung, dan batu gamping dapat dibedakan dari batuan lainnya melalui adanya perlapisan, butiran-butiran sedimen yang menjadi satu akibat adanya semen, dan juga adanya fosil yang ikut terendapkan saat pecahan batuan dan fosil mengalami proses erosi, kompaksi dan akhirnya tersementasikan bersama-sama.</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><a href="http://doddys.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/metamorphism.jpg" style="color: #226699; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="metamorphism.jpg"><img align="left" alt="metamorphism.jpg" src="http://doddys.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/metamorphism.thumbnail.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; position: relative;" /></a>Pada kerak bumi yang cukup dalam, tekanan dan suhu yang ada sangatlah tinggi. Kondisi tekanan dan suhu yang sangat tinggi seperti ini dapat mengubah mineral yang dalam batuan. Proses ini sering disebut proses metamorfisme. Semua batuan yang ada dapat mengalami proses metamorfisme. Tingkat proses metamorfisme yang terjadi tergantung dari:</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial;">Apakah batuan yang ada terkena efek tekanan dan atau suhu yang tinggi.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial;">Apakah batuan tersebut mengalami perubahan bentuk.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial;">Berapa lama batuan yang ada terkena tekanan dan suhu yang tinggi.</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><a href="http://doddys.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/melting.jpg" style="color: #226699; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="melting.jpg"><img align="left" alt="melting.jpg" src="http://doddys.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/melting.thumbnail.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; position: relative;" /></a>Dengan bertambahnya dalam suatu batuan dalam bumi, kemungkinan batuan yang ada melebur kembali menjadi magma sangatlah besar. Ini karena tekanan dan suhu yang sangat tinggi pada kedalaman yang sangat dalam. Akibat densitas dari magma yang terbentuk lebih kecil dari batuan sekitarnya, maka magma tersebut akan mencoba kembali ke permukaan menembus kerak bumi yang ada. Magma juga terbentuk di bawah kerak bumi yaitu di mantle bumi. Magma ini juga akan berusaha menerobos kerak bumi untuk kemudian berkumpul dengan magma yang sudah terbentuk sebelumnya dan selanjutnya berusaha menerobos kerak bumi untuk membentuk batuan beku baik itu plutonik ataupun vulkanik.</span><span style="font-family: Arial;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"><a href="http://doddys.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/extrusive.jpg" style="color: #226699; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="extrusive.jpg"><img align="left" alt="extrusive.jpg" src="http://doddys.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/extrusive.thumbnail.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; position: relative;" /></a><a href="http://doddys.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/extrusive.jpg" style="color: #226699; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="extrusive.jpg"></a>Kadang-kadang magma mampu menerobos sampai ke permukaan bumi melalui rekahan atau patahan yang ada di bumi. Pada saat magma mampu menembus permukaan bumi, maka kadang terbentuk ledakan atau sering disebut volcanic eruption. Proses ini sering disebut proses ekstrusif. Batuan yang terbentuk dari magma yang keluar ke permukaan disebut batuan beku ekstrusif. Basalt dan pumice (batu apung) adalah salah satu contoh batuan ekstrusif. Jenis batuan yang terbentuk akibat proses ini tergantung dari komposisi magma yang ada. Umumnya batuan beku ekstrusif memperlihatkan cirri-ciri berikut:</span></div>
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<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial;">Butirannya sangatlah kecil. Ini disebabkan magma yang keluar ke permukaan bumi mengalami proses pendinginan yang sangat cepat sehingga mineral-mineral yang ada sebagai penyusun batuan tidak mempunyai banyak waktu untuk dapat berkembang.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial;">Umumnya memperlihatkan adanya rongga-rongga yang terbentuk akibat gas yang terkandung dalam batuan atau yang sering disebut “gas bubble”.</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><a href="http://doddys.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/intrusive.jpg" style="color: #226699; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;" title="intrusive.jpg"><img align="left" alt="intrusive.jpg" src="http://doddys.files.wordpress.com/2008/02/intrusive.thumbnail.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(51, 51, 51); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; position: relative;" /></a>Batuan yang meleleh akibat tekanan dan suhu yang sangat tinggi sering membentuk magma chamber dalam kerak bumi. Magma ini bercampur dengan magma yang terbentuk dari mantle. Karena letak magma chamber yang relatif dalam dan tidak mengalami proses ekstrusif, maka magma yang ada mengalami proses pendinginan yang relatif lambat dan membentuk kristal-kristal mineral yang akhirnya membentuk batuan beku intrusif. Batuan beku intrusif dapat tersingkap di permukaan membentuk pluton. Salah satu jenis pluton terbesar yang tersingkap dengan jelas adalah batholit seperti yang ada di Sierra Nevada – USA yang merupakan batholit granit yang sangat besar. Gabbro juga salah satu contoh batuan intrusif. Jenis batuan yang terbentuk akibat proses ini tergantung dari komposisi magma yang ada. Umumnya batuan beku intrusif memperlihatkan cirri-ciri berikut:</span></div>
<ol style="font-family: tahoma, verdana, sans-serif; line-height: normal;">
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial;">Butirannya cukup besar. Ini disebabkan magma yang keluar ke permukaan bumi mengalami proses pendinginan yang sangat lambat sehingga mineral-mineral yang ada sebagai penyusun batuan mempunyai banyak waktu untuk dapat berkembang.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: Arial;">Biasanya mineral-mineral pembentuk batuan beku intrusif memperlihatkan angular interlocking.</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">Proses-proses inilah semua yang terjadi dimasa lampau, sekarang, dan yang akan datang. Terjadinya proses-proses ini menjaga keseimbangan batuan yang ada di bumi.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><br />
</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">sumber:</span><a href="http://doddys.wordpress.com/2008/02/19/rock-cycle-siklus-batuan/" style="line-height: 1.5em;">http://doddys.wordpress.com/2008/02/19/rock-cycle-siklus-batuan/</a></div>
<br /></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16657756079639024986noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4946753298851728224.post-12505149941922962012-06-25T03:29:00.001-07:002012-06-25T03:29:22.611-07:00pirates of caribean theme<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.youtube.com/embed/g5WB-p-QBJc?feature=player_embedded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16657756079639024986noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4946753298851728224.post-63969967049701247282012-06-25T03:03:00.000-07:002012-06-25T03:03:21.301-07:00LAPORAN PRATIKUM TEKNIK RESERVOIR I VISKOSITAS KINEMATIK<br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%;">LAPORAN PRATIKUM TEKNIK
RESERVOIR I<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%;">VISKOSITAS KINEMATIK</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">(ASTM D-445)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">DISUSUN
OLEH:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">NAMA :
GISKA DEOVELWAN<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">NPM :
1103028<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 150%;">LABORATORIUM
TEKNIK RESERVOIR<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 150%;">PRODI</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 150%;">TEK. EKSPLORASI PRODUKSI MIGAS<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 150%;">POLITEKNIK AKAMIGAS
PALEMBANG<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 150%;">TA.2011/2012<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">KATA PENGANTAR</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Puji
dan syukur saya panjatkan ke hadirat Tuhan Yang Maha Esa, karena berkat rahmat
dan anugrah-Nyalah saya dapat menyelesaikan makalah ini.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Karunia-Nya merupakan inspirasi yang tak
terperi dalam penyelesaian </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">laporan</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">
tentang viskositas</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI;">Sebagai pegangan ilmu dalam praktikum reservoir</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">. K</span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI;">ami
banyak mencari materi yang harus </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">di pelajari lebih
dalam,Oleh karena itu</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">saya
selaku penulis banyak melakukan pencarian data mengenai lebih dalam ilmu
viskositas yang disajikan dalam makalah ini.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"> P</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">ada
kesempatan ini, saya selaku penulis mengucapkan terima kasih yang sebesar</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">-</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">besarnya kepada asisten praktikum
reservoir yang telah banyak membantu
kami mulai dari perencanaan hingga sampai penyusunan. Saya pun berbahagia
seandainya mahasiswa Akamigas semakin
antusias mengikuti perkembangan ilmu dan teknologi dalam dunia perminyakan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> Saya selaku penulis
memohon maaf apabila terdapat kesalahan dalam bentuk penyajian maupun
dal</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">a</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">m bentuk ilmiah
yang saya sajikan</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">dan
meminta kepada semua pihak agar memberikan kritik dan sarannya, guna menyempurnakan
</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">laporan</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">
ini</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">. S</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">aya
berharap ini dapat ber</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">m</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">anfaat
bagi mahasiswa/i Akamigas khususnya bagi jurusan Teknik Eksplorasi dan Produksi
Migas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI;">Palembang, 18 Juni 2011<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI;">Penulis<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">DAFTAR
ISI<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Halaman </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">J</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">udul…………………………………………………………………</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Kata </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">P</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">engantar………………………………………………………………..</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Daftar </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">I</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">si……………………………………………………………………....</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB I.
PENDAHULUAN................................................................................</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> I.1 Latar
Belakang..........................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> I.2. Tujuan dan
Manfaat..................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> I.3 Metodelogi Penulisan ...............................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> I.4 Sistematik Penulisan
................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB II. TINJAUAN
PUSTAKA......................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB III.
PEMBAHASAN................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB IV.
PENUTUP........................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> IV.1 Kesimpulan ........................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> IV.2
Saran...................................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">DAFTAR
PUSTAKA.....................................................................................<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB I<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">PENDAHULUAN<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">I.1
Latar Belakang<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI;">Dalam ilmu industri
perminyakan,</span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI;">praktikum ini sangat bermaanfaat bagi mahasiswa khususnya
mahasiswa TEKNIK EKSPLORASI PRODUKSI MIGAS,</span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI;">viskositas
sangat berperan penting dalam menentukan kekentalan minyak baik yang trasparan
maupun opaque dalam trayek 0,2 Cs dan lebih besar dari 0,2Cs<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI;">I.2
Tujuan dan Manfaat<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI;">Tujuan :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: SV;">Agar
mahasiswa/i dapat menentukan</span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI;">,</span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI;">viskositas
sangat berperan penting dalam menghitung kekentalan minyak baik yang trasparan
maupun opaque dalam trayek 0,2 Cs dan lebih besar dari 0,2</span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI;">Cs</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">.</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: SV;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI;">Manfaat :</span><span lang="SV" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: SV;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV">Lebih
mengenalkan mahasiswa/i Poltek</span><span lang="IN">nik</span><span lang="IN"> </span><span lang="IN">A</span><span lang="SV">kamigas </span><span lang="IN">Palembang </span><span lang="SV">bagaimana cara kerja menghitung viskositas
dalam suatu fluida. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]--><span lang="SV">Agar
mahasiswa </span><span lang="IN">menge</span><span lang="SV">tahu</span><span lang="IN">i</span><span lang="SV"> apa saja peralatan yg
di gunakan dalam praktikum viskositas</span><span lang="IN">.</span><span lang="SV"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI;">I.3 Metodelogi Penulisan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Adapun
metodelogi penulisan yang penulis gunakan adalah :<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]-->Library Research, yaitu penulis mengumpulkan
data-data yang diperlukan dari buku-buku dan internet yang sesuai dengan
masalah yang akan dibahas.</div>
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<b><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI;">I.4 Sistematik Penulisan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI;">BAB
I, merupakan penjelasan dari latar belakang dibuatnya laporan ini, tujuan dan
manfaat dari pembuatan laporan, metodelogi penulisan serta sistematik
penulisan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI;">BAB
II, berisi tentang tinjauan pustaka baik itu dasar-dasar teori yang
bersangkutan dengan judul maupun gambar-gambar<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI;">BAB
III, pembahasan tentang </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">viskositas
kiematik<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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IV, yaitu penutup yang terdiri dari kesimpulan</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">, </span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI;">saran</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"> d</span><span lang="FI" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: FI;">an
terakhir daftar pustaka<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB II<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">TINJAUAN PUSTAKA</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Viskositas</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">adalah sebuah ukuran penolakan sebuah </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid" title="Fluid"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">fluid</span></a><span lang="IN">a</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">terhadap
perubahan bentuk di bawah </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tekanan_shear&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Tekanan shear (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">tekanan shear</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">. Biasanya diterima sebagai
"kekentalan" atau penolakan terhadap penuangan. Viskositas
menggambarkan penolakan dalam fluid kepada aliran dan dapat dipikir sebagai
sebuah cara untuk mengukur </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gesekan&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Gesekan (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">gesekan</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> fluid. </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air" title="Air"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Air</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> memiliki viskositas rendah, sedangkan </span><a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minyak_sayur&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Minyak sayur (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">minyak sayur</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> memiliki viskositas tinggi.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Gaya
tarik menarik antar</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">molekul
yang besar dalam cairan menghasilkan viskositas yang tinggi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]--><i>Teori
Newton
</i>Ketika sebuah <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tekanan_shear&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Tekanan shear (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">tekanan shear</span></a> diterapkan kepada sebuah benda <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padat" title="Padat"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">pada</span><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1;">t</span></a>, badan itu akan berubah bentuk sampai mengakibatkan gaya
yang berlawanan untuk mengimbangkan, sebuah <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ekuilibrium&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Ekuilibrium (halaman belum tersedia)"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">ekuilibrium</span></a>. Namun, ketika sebuah tekanan shear
diterapkan kepada sebuah <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid" title="Fluid"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">fluid</span></a>, seperti <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angin" title="Angin"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">angin</span></a> bertiup di atas permukaan <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samudra" title="Samudra"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">samudra</span></a>, fluid
mengalir, dan berlanjut mengalir ketika tekanan diterapkan. Ketika tekanan
dihilangkan, umumnya aliran
berkurang karena perubahan internal <a href="http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energi" title="Energi"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">energi</span></a> <a href="http://www.garambang.info/search/viskositas-cairan-newton/"><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">viskositas cairan newton</span></a>, Viskositas tiap fluida memiliki resistansi tehadap gaya
geser atau viskositas yang berbeda. Makin besar tegangan geser yang terjadi
maka makin kecil<span lang="IN"> viskositasnya. </span>Viskositas adalah sebuah ukuran penolakan sebuah fluid
terhadap perubahan bentuk di bawah tekanan shear. Tekanan uap<span lang="IN"> s</span>eperti dalam kasus gas, energi kinetik
molekul cairan tidak seragam tetapi bervariasi. Terdapat keteraturan dalam
keragaman ini dan distribusi<span lang="IN"> m</span>ahasiswa dapat menjelaskan pengertian
viskositas dan sifat alir cairan Viskositas dan sifat alir Cairan Newton
Viskositas dinamik<span lang="IN">, </span>Viskositas
kinematik<span lang="IN">. </span>Viskositas
merupakan suatu pernyataan tahanan dari suatu cairan untuk mengalir<span lang="IN">. </span>Viskositas Kinematik adalah viskositas
absolut dibagi kerapatan cairan ( bobot Cairan hijau di
bagian kiri mempunyai tingkat viskositas yang lebih Teori Newton<span lang="IN">)</span>. Ketika sebuah tekanan shear
diterapkan kepada sebuah benda padat, badan itu akan<span lang="IN"> s</span>ampai di sini yang telah dibahas adalah cairan satu komponen yakni cairan murni. Fasa cair yang
berupa sistem dua atau multi komponen, yakni larutan juga.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Cairan
Non Newton mempunyai tiga sub grup yaitu: <br />
1. Cairan dimana tegangan geser hanya tergantung pada gradien kecepatan <br />
saja, dan walaupun hubungan antara tegangan geser dan gradien kecepatan tidak
linier, namun tidak tergantung pada waktu setelah cairan menggeser.<br />
2. Cairan dimana tegangan geser tidak hanya tergantung pada gradien <br />
kecepatan tetapi tergantung pula pada waktu cairan menggeser atau pada kondisi
sebelumnya. <br />
3. Cairan visco-elastis yang menunjukkan karakteristik dari zat pada elastis
dan cairan viskus. <br />
Kemiringan garis tersebut menunjukkan besarnya viskositas.<br />
Prinsip dasar persamaan kontinuitas adalah massa tidak dapat diciptakan dan
tidak dapat dimusnahkan, dimana massa dalam suatu sistem yang konstan dapat
dinyatakan dalam rumus: <br />
<b> ρ1.v1.dA1 =
ρ2.v2.dA2</b></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
Perilaku dari fluida yang mengalir bergantung pada sifat dari fluida yang
bervariasi. Viskositas adalah salah satu sifat yang penting</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">berpengaruh pada tegangan geser yang terjadi
pada fluida yang bergerak. Meskipun kedua fluida terlihat sama (keduanya
mempunyai cairan yang bening dan mempunyai spesifik gravitasi, mereka
berperilaku sangat berbeda pada saat bergerak. Viskositas yang paling kental
adalah sekitar 10.000 kali daripada air.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Fluida
adalah zat yang tidak dapat menahan perubahan bentuk (distorsi) secara
permanen. Bila kita mencoba mengubah bentuk suatu massa fluida, maka di dalam
fluida tersebut akan terbentuk lapisan-lapisan di mana lapisan yang satu akan
mengalir di atas lapisan yang lain, sehingga tercapai bentuk baru. Selama
perubahan bentuk tersebut, terdapat tegangan geser (shear stress)</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">yang besarnya bergantung pada viskositas
fluida dan laju alir fluida relatif terhadap arah tertentu. Bila fluida telah
mendapatkan bentuk akhirnya, semua tegangan geser tersebut akan hilang sehingga
fluida berada dalam keadaan kesetimbangan.</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada
temperatur dan tekanan tertentu, setiap fluida mempunyai densitas tertentu.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Jika densitas hanya sedikit terpengaruh oleh
perubahan suhu dan tekanan yang relatif besar, fluida tersebut bersifat
incompressible.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tetapi
jika densitasnya peka terhadap perubahan variabel temperatur dan tekanan</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">. F</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">luida tersebut digolongkan compresible.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Zat cair biasanya dianggap zat yang
incompresible, sedangkan gas umumnya dikenal sebagai zat yang compresible.<br />
Kemampu</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">an </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">mampat
fluida (Compressibility of fluids) adalah salah satu sifat fluida</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">yaitu seberapa mudah volume dari suatu massa
fluida dapat diubah apabila terjadi perubahan tekana</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> artinya seberapa mampu</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">mampatkah fluida tersebut. Sebuah sifat yang
biasa dipakai untuk mengetahui kemampu</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">an </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">mampatan fluida adalah bulk modulus</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Ev.Ev=dp/(dp/p)<br />
Hasil nilai modulus yang besar menunjukan bahwa fluida relatif tidak mampu
mampat. Tidak mampu mampat artinya dibutuhkan perubahan tekanan yang besar
untuk menghasilkan perubahan volume yang kecil.<br />
<br />
<i>SISTEM</i></span><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></i><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> NEWTONIAN</span></i><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Diasumsikan
adalah sebuah balok cairan yang terdiri dari lapisan-lapisan molekul paralel,
bagaikan setumpuk kartu. Jika bidang cairan paling atas bergerak dengan suatu
kecepatan konstan, setiap lapisan di bawahnya akan bergerak dengan suatu
kecepatan yang berbanding lurus dengan jarak dari lapisan dasar yang diam. <br />
Digunakan istilah :<br />
Rate of shear (D) dv/dr untuk menyatakan perbedaan kecepatan (dv) antara dua
bidang cairan yang dipisahkan oleh jarak yang sangat kecil (dr).<br />
Shearing stress (τ atau F ) F’/A untuk menyatakan gaya per satuan luas yang
diperlukan untuk menyebabkan aliran.<br />
F’/A = η dv/dr<br />
η= F’/A = Fdv/dr G</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
Viskositas </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">(</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">η</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">)</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> merupakan perbandingan antara Shearing
stress F’/A dan Rate of shear dv/dr. Satuan viskositas adalah poise atau dyne
detik cm<sup>-2</sup><br />
Fluid</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">i</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">tas merupakan kebalikan dari viskositas.
Satuan fluiditas adalah centipoise (cps). 1cps= 0,01poise</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> , </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">f = 1/η</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
Viskositas Kinematik adalah viskositas absolut dibagi kerapatan cairan (bobot
jenis).</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Satuannya adalah stokes, s atau centistokes,
cs.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Viskositas kinematik = η /r</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">. </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Besarnya Rate of shear sebanding dengan
Shearing stress.<br />
<br />
<b>Pengaruh Suhu terhadap Viskositas</b><br />
RUMUS ARRHENIUS :<br />
h = A.eEv/RT</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dimana:</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br />
A = konstanta tergantung pada berat molekul dan molar volume cairan<br />
Ev = energi aktivasi yang diperlukan untuk menginisiasi aliran antar molekul<br />
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br />
<!--[endif]--></span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dibutuhkan
lebih banyak energi untuk memecah ikatan dan membuat cairan tersebut mengalir,
karena cairan tersebut tersusun dari molekul-molekul yang dihubungkan dengan
ikatan hidrogen. Tetapi ikatan ini akan dipecahkan pada temperatur yang tinggi
oleh perpindahan panas dan Ev akan menurun dengan nyata. Viskositas cairan akan
menurun jika suhu diturunkan, sedangkan viskositas gas meningkat jika suhu
dinaikkan.<br />
<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br />
<!--[endif]--></span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Cara menentukan viskositas suatu zat
menggunakan alat yang dinamakan viskometer.</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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Ada beberapa tipe viskometer yang biasa digunakan antara
lain :<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN">1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><i>Viskometer k apiler / Ostwald<br />
</i> <span lang="IN"> </span>Viskositas dari cairan newton bias
ditentukan dengan mengukur waktu yang dibutuhkan bagi cairan tersebut untuk
lewat antara 2 tanda ketikaia mengalir karena gravitasi melalui viskometer
Ostwald. Waktu alir dari cairan yang diuji dibandingkan dengan waktu yang
dibutuhkan bagi suatu zat yang viskositasnya sudah diketahui (biasanya air)
untuk lewat 2 tanda tersebut (Moechtar,1990).<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN">2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><i>Viskometer Hoppler<br />
</i>Berdasrkan hukum
Stokes pada kecepatan bola maksimum, terjadi keseimbangan sehingga gaya gesek = gaya berat – gaya
archimides. Prinsip kerjanya adalah menggelindingkan bola ( yang terbuat dari
kaca ) melalui tabung gelas yang berisi zat cair yang diselidiki. Kecepatan
jatuhnya bola merupakan fungsi dari harga resiprok sampel (Moechtar,1990).<br />
<i>Viskometer Cup dan Bob</i><br />
Prinsip kerjanya sample digeser
dalam ruangan antaradinding luar dari bob dan dinding dalamdari cup dimana bob
masuk persis ditengah-tengah. Kelemahan viscometer ini adalah terjadinya aliran
sumbat yang disebabkan geseran yang tinggi di sepanjang keliling bagian tube sehingga
menyebabkan penu<span lang="IN">r</span>unan
konsentrasi.Penurunan konsentras iini menyebabkab bagian tengah zat yang
ditekan kelua rmemadat.Hal ini disebt aliran sumbat (Moechtar,1990).<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span lang="IN">3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><!--[endif]--><i>Viskometer Cone dan Plate<br />
</i> Cara pemakaiannya adalah sampel
ditempatkan ditengah-tengah papan, kemudian dinaikkan hingga posisi di bawah
kerucut. Kerucut digerakkan oleh motor dengan bermacam kecepatan dan sampelnya
digeser di dalam ruang semitransparan yang diam dan kemudian kerucut yang
berputar (Moechtar,1990).<b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 1; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Viskositas merupakan ukuran kekentalan fluida yang menyatakan besar
kecilnya gesekan di dalam fluida. Makin besar viskositas suatu fluida, maka
makin sulit suatu fluida mengalir dan makin sulit suatu benda bergerak di dalam
fluida tersebut. Di dalam zat cair, viskositas dihasilkan oleh gaya kohesi
antara molekul zat cair. Sedangkan dalam gas, viskositas timbul sebagai akibat
tumbukan antara molekul gas. Viskositas zat cair dapat ditentukan secara
kuantitatif dengan besaran yang disebut koefisien viskositas. Satuan SI untuk
koefisien viskositas adalah Ns/m2 atau pascal sekon (Pa s). Ketika Anda
berbicara viskositas Anda berbicara tentang fluida sejati. Fluida ideal tidak
mempunyai koefisien viskositas. Apabila suatu benda bergerak dengan kelajuan v
dalam suatu fluida kental yang koefisien viskositasnya, maka benda tersebut
akan mengalami gaya gesekan fluida dengan k adalah konstanta yang bergantung
pada bentuk geometris benda. Berdasarkan perhitungan laboratorium, pada tahun
1845, Sir George Stokes menunjukkan bahwa untuk benda yang bentuk geometrisnya
berupa bola nilai k = 6 π r. Bila nilai k dimasukkan ke dalam persamaan, maka
diperoleh persamaan seperti berikut:</span><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 24.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN; mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Gambar Alat dan Rangkaian Percobaan</span></b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: IN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]-->1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span><!--[endif]-->Viskosimeter Dua Kaki <span lang="IN">2. </span> Viskosimeter Tiga Kaki</div>
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<b>Rangkaian Percobaan<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB
III<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">
</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">PEMBAHASAN</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada
kali ini say</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;">a</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">
mengangkat masalah mengenai </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">koefisien viskositas didefinisikan sebagai
hambatan pada aliran cairan. Gas juga memiliki viskositas, tetapi nilainya
sangat kecil. Dalam kasus tertentu viskositas gas memiliki peran penting,
misalnya dalam peawat terbang. </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Viskositas cairan yang partikelnya besar dan
berbentuk tak teratur lebih tingg</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">i</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">
dari</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">pada yang partikelnya kecil dan bentuknya
teratur. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Semakin tinggi suhu cairan, semakin kecil
viskositasnya.<a href="" name="more"></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dua poin ini dapat dijelaskan dengan teori
kinetik.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Tumbukan antara partikel yang berbentuk bola
atau dekat dengan bentuk bola adalah tumbukan elastik atau hampir elastik.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Namun</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">tumbukan
antara partikel yang bentuknya tidak beraturan cenderung tidak elastik.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dalam tumbukan tidak elastik, sebagian energi
translasi diubah menjadi energi vibrasi, dan akibatnya partikel menjadi lebih
sukar bergerak dan cenderung berkoagulasi.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Efek
suhu mirip dengan efek suhu pada gas.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Koefisien viskositas juga kadang secara
singkat disebut dengan viskositas dan diungkapkan dalam N s m<sup>-2</sup>
dalam satuan SI. Bila sebuah bola berjari-jari r bergerak dalam cairan dengan
viskositas η</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">dengan kecepatan U,
hambatan D terhadap bola tadi diungkapkan sebagai.berikut: </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b>D = 6πhrU </b><span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Hubungan ini (hukum Stokes) ditemukan
oleh fisikawan Inggris Gabriel Stokes (1819-1903). Viskosotas atau kekentalan
dapat dibayangkan sebagai gesekan antara satu lapisan dengan lapisan lain di
dalam fluida. Dalam fluida tidak kental (fluida ideal) tidak ada viskositas
yang menghambat lapisan-lapisan fluida ketika laipsan-lapisan tersebut bergeser
sedangkan dalma fluida kental viskositas/kekentalan itu ada. Akibatnya dalam
suatu pipa yang luas penampangnya serba sama, setiap lapisan fluida tidak
kental bergerak dengan kecepatan yang sama, demikian pula lapisan fluida yang
dekat dengan dinding pipa, sedangkan dalam fluida kental lapisan-lapisan fluida
bergerak dengan kecepatan yang tidak seluruhnya sama. Bahkan lapisan fluida
yang terdekat dengan dinding tidak bergerak sama sekali . Dalam fluida yang
kental kita perlu gaya untuk menggeser satu lapisan fluida terhadap yang lain
.Fluida ideal tidak mempunyai viskositas alias kekentalan. Jika kita
mengandaikan suatu fluida ideal mengalir dalam sebuah pipa, setiap bagian
fluida tersebut bergerak dengan laju (v) yang sama. Berbeda dengan fluida
ideal, fluida riil alias fluida yang kita jumpai dalam kehidupan sehari-hari
mempunyai viskositas.Karena mempunyai viskositas, maka ketika mengalir dalam
sebuah pipa, misalnya, laju setiap bagian fluida berbeda-beda. Lapisan fluida
yang berada tengah-tengah bergerak lebih cepat (v besar), sebaliknya lapisan
fluida yang nempel dengan pipa tidak bergerak alias diam (v = 0). Jadi dari
tengah ke pinggir pipa, setiap bagian fluida tersebut bergerak dengan laju yang
berbeda-beda. <o:p></o:p></div>
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Keterangan :<o:p></o:p></div>
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R = jari-jari pipa/tabung v
1
= laju aliran fluida yang berada di tengah/sumbu tabung v
2 = laju aliran fluida yang berjarak r2 dari pinggir tabung v 3 = laju
aliran fluida yang berjarak r3 dari pinggir tabung v
4 = laju aliran fluida yang berjarak r4 dari pinggir tabung r<span lang="IN"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Besarnya gaya yang diperlukan
untuk menggerakkan suatu lapisan fluida dengan kelajuan tetap v untuk luas
keeping yang bersentuhan dengan fluida A, dan berjarak L dari keeping yang diam
dirumuskan dengan. Dengan F = gaya yang
bekerja (newton(N) A = luas penampang yang bersentuhan dengan fluida (m2 ) <o:p></o:p></div>
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V= kelajuan (m/s) L = jarak antara dua keeping (m) <o:p></o:p></div>
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η =koefisien viskositas [kgm-1s-1 atau Pa s (pascal sekon )] <o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">nilai koefisien viskositas (η) berubah sesuai dengan
perubahan temperature. Jika temperature naik viskositas zat cair turun
sedangkan untuk gas akan naik dan sebaliknya jika temperature turun viskositas
zat cair naik sedangkan untuk gas turun. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Hukum stokes untuk fluida
kental</span></i><i><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Bagaimana pengaruh fluida kental terhadap benda
yang bergerak di dalamnya</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">. </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Apabila
suatu benda bergerak dengan kelajuan tertentu dalam suatu fluida kental, maka
benda tersebut akan terhambat gerakannya oleh gaya gesekan fluida pada benda
tersebut. Seorang dengan nama sir George Stokes pada tahun 1845 menunjukkan
bahwa gaya hambatan F yang dialami oleh benda berbentuk bola yang bergerak
relative terhadap fluida diberikan oleh hubungan <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dengan</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Fs= gaya hambatan (N) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">η =koefisien viskositas [kgm-1s-1 atau Pa s (pascal sekon
)]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">r= jari-jari bola (m) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">v = kelajuan relative benda terhadap fluida (m/s) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">π = 3,14 atau 22</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Hukum Stokes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Suatu benda yang dijatuhkan bebas dalam suatu
fluida kental, kecepatannya makin besar sampai mencapai suatu kecepatan
maksimum yang tetap. Kecepatan maksimum yang tetap ini dinamakan kecepatan
terminal</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">. </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pada
benda yang jatuh bebas dalam fluida kental, selama geraknya bekerja tiga buah
gaya yaitu:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gaya
berat w= m. G yang arahnya ke bawah<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gaya
keatas fa= vf. Ρf G yang arahnya keatas <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">3.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Gaya
hambatan/gesekan yang dikerjakan fluida.
Fs<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Kecepatan terminal dicapai setel</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">a</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">h gaya-gaya yang bekerja seimbang <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> W
–fs–f a = 0 <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Untuk benda berbentuk bola, kecepatan
terminal (vt) dirumuskan dengan </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Dengan</span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">vt= kecepatan terminal (m/s) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">r = jari-jari bola (m) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">η= koefisien viskositas fluida (kg m-1 s-1) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="" name="_GoBack"></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">ρb= massa jenis benda (kg/m3) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">ρf = massa jenis benda (kg/m3) </span><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">g = gravitasi (m/s)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">BAB
IV<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">PENUTUP</span></b><b><span lang="IN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: IN;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">VI.1
Kesimpulan<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span">Berdasarkan
uraian bahasan “viskositas” dapat disimpulkan bahwa</span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="IN">:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span">1. Peranan viskositas di industry migas sangat
penting.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span">2. Viskositas sangat penting dan harus cermat
dalam menentukan </span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="IN"> </span>kekentalan </span>Minyak baik yang transparan maupun opaque.<b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="apple-style-span"><b>VI.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></b></span><!--[endif]--><b><span lang="IN">II </span>Saran</b><br />
<span class="apple-style-span">1. Sebaiknya alat dan bahan digunakan sesuai
dengan tujuan dan fungsinya.</span><span class="apple-style-span"><b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">2. Sample ke 3 harus di
lengkapi</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span lang="IN" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="background: white; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">DAFTAR PUSTAKA<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Ir.H.hamid,abdul. dkk. <i>Buku</i><i><span lang="IN">
P</span>enuntun</i><i><span lang="IN"> P</span>ratikumTeknik Reservoir I</i>.
LaboratoriumTeknik Reservoir I.2011/2012: Palembang<b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<span style="background: white;">http://www.shinhan.com/product/catalog/gecil_astm_method_D6304%20%2800%29.PDF<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: white;">http
: //www.kyoto-kem.com/en/pdf/</span><span lang="IN" style="background: white; mso-ansi-language: IN;">viskositas/kekentalan</span><span style="background: white;">.pdfp<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: white;">http
://www.intertekcb.com/Thailand/documents/</span><span lang="IN" style="background: white; mso-ansi-language: IN;">viskositas_kinematik</span><span style="background: white;">.pdf<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: white; mso-ansi-language: IN;"> </span><span style="background: white;">http ://www.energyinstpubs.org.uk/pdfs/1657.pdf<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: white;">http
://www.expotechusa.com</span><span lang="IN" style="background: white; mso-ansi-language: IN;">/viskositas</span><span style="background: white;">.pdf<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16657756079639024986noreply@blogger.com0